The energy released from nuclear weapons detonated in the troposphere can be divided into four basic categories:
- Explosion - 40-50% of total energy
- Thermal radiation - 30-50% of total energy
- Ionizing radiation - 5% of total energy (more in neutron bombs)
- Remaining radiation - 5-10% of total energy with explosive mass
Depending on the design of the weapon and the environment in which it is detonated, the energy distributed into this category can be increased or decreased. The explosive effect is created by coupling a large amount of energy, which includes the electromagnetic spectrum, with the surrounding environment. Locations such as submarines, ground explosions, air bursts, or exo atmosphere determine how much energy is produced as explosions and how much radiation. In general, the denser media around the bomb, like water, absorbs more energy, and creates stronger shock waves while at the same time limiting the area of ​​influence.
When airborne explosions occur, deadly explosions and thermal effects are proportionately scaled faster than the effects of lethal radiation, as higher and higher nuclear weapons are used.
The mechanism of physical destruction of nuclear weapons (explosion and thermal radiation) is identical to conventional explosives, but the energy generated by nuclear explosions is millions of times stronger per gram and temperatures are achieved only briefly in the tens of millions. level.
The energy of the nuclear explosive was initially released in some form of transparent radiation. When there is surrounding material such as air, rock, or water, this radiation interacts with and rapidly heats it to a balanced temperature (ie that the material is at the same temperature as the atomic bomb material). This leads to evaporation of the surrounding material resulting in rapid expansion. The kinetic energy created by this expansion contributes to the formation of shock waves. When a nuclear explosion takes place in the air near the surface of the ocean, much of the energy released interacts with the atmosphere and creates a shock wave that expands spherically from the center. Intense heat radiation in the hypocenter forms a nuclear fire ball and if the explosion is low enough, it is often associated with a mushroom cloud. In high altitude explosions, where air density is low, more energy is released as ionizing gamma radiation and x-rays than atmospheric-displacing waves.
In 1942 there was some initial speculation among scientists who developed the first nuclear weapon that might have possibly triggered the Earth's atmosphere with a substantial nuclear explosion. This will involve a nuclear reaction of two nitrogen atoms that make up carbon and oxygen atoms, with the release of energy. This energy will heat up enough nitrogen to keep the reaction going until all the nitrogen atoms are consumed. Hans Bethe was assigned the task of studying whether there was a possibility in the early days, and concluded there was no possibility because the Compton effect reversed the cooling of fireballs. Richard Hamming, a mathematician, was asked to make similar calculations just before Trinity, with the same result. Nevertheless, the idea has survived as a rumor for years, and is a source of jokes at the Trinity test.
Video Effects of nuclear explosions
Direct effect
Blast damage
High temperatures and radiation cause the gas to move out radially in a thin, thin shell called "front hydrodynamic". The front works like a piston that pushes and presses the surrounding medium to create a spherical sponge of shock waves. At first, these shock waves are inside the burgeoning surface of a fireball, created in the volume of air heated by "soft" X-rays. Within a split second, the front of the solid shock obscures the fireball, and continues to move past it, now extending outward, free of fireballs, causing characteristic double pulses seen from nuclear explosions, with dips causing double pulses due to shock-spherical shock interactions. This is a unique feature of a nuclear explosion that is exploited when verifying that atmospheric nuclear explosions have occurred and not just a large conventional explosion, with a radiometer instrument known as Bhangmeters capable of determining explosive properties.
For bursts of air at or near sea level, 50-60% of the explosive energy enters the blast wave, depending on the size and yield of the bomb. As a general rule, the blast fraction is higher for low yield weapons. Furthermore, it decreases at high altitude because there is less air mass to absorb the radiation energy and turn it into an explosion. This effect is most important for altitudes above 30 km, corresponding to less than 1 percent of sea surface air density.
The effects of moderate rain storms during the Operation Castle nuclear explosion were found to dampen, or reduce, peak pressure levels by about 15% across all ranges.
Much of the damage caused by nuclear explosions is caused by the effects of explosions. Most buildings, except reinforced or blast-proof structures, will suffer moderate damage when they overpressure only 35.5 kilopascals (kPa) (force of 5.15 pounds per square inch or 0.35 atm). Data obtained from the Japanese survey found that 8 psi (55 kPa) was enough to destroy all structures of wood and brick settlements. This can be defined as a pressure capable of generating severe damage.
The explosion of the wind at sea level can exceed a thousand km/h, or ~ 300 m/s, close to the speed of sound in the air. The range for explosive effects increases with explosive weapons results and also depends on the height of the explosion. Contrary to what is expected from geometry, the range of explosions is not maximal for surface explosions or low altitudes but increases with altitude to "optimum blast height" and then decreases rapidly to higher altitudes. This is due to the behavior of non-linear shock waves. When the explosive wave from the air blast reaches the ground it is reflected. Under a certain reflection angle the reflected waves and waves directly combine and form a reinforced horizontal wave, this is known as the 'stem Mach' (named after Ernst Mach) and is a form of constructive interference. This constructive disorder is a phenomenon responsible for a lump or 'knee' in the overpressure range graph above.
For each destination overpressure, there is a certain optimum burst height where the explosion range is maximized through ground targets. In typical air bursts, where the explosive range is maximized to produce the largest range of severe damage, the largest extended range of ~ 10 psi (69 kPa) extended pressure, is a GR/0.4 km range for 1 kiloton (kt) of yield TNT; 1.9 km to 100 kt; and 8.6 km to 10 megatons (Mt) TNT. The optimum height of bursts to maximize the destruction of the soil with this desired level for a 1 kt bomb is 0.22 km; for 100 kt, 1 km; and for 10 Mt, 4.7 km.
Two different simultaneous phenomena are associated with explosive waves in the air:
- Static overpressure , that is, the sharply increased pressure provided by shock waves. Overpressure at a certain point is directly proportional to the air density in the wave.
- Dynamic pressure , that is, the drag provided by the wind blow required to form an explosive wave. This wind pushes, falls, and rips things away.
Much of the material damage caused by nuclear air bursts is caused by a combination of high static overpressure and wind gusts. The long compression of the explosive wave weakens the structure, which is then torn by the wind. The phase of compression, vacuum and drag together can last a few seconds or longer, and exert a force many times greater than the strongest storm.
Acting on the human body, shock waves cause pressure waves through the network. These waves mostly damage the junction between tissues of different densities (bones and muscles) or the interface between the tissues and the air. The lungs and abdominal cavities, which contain air, are deeply hurt. Damage causes severe bleeding or air embolism, one of which can be fatal. Overpressure is thought to damage the lungs is about 70 kPa. Some eardrums may break about 22 kPa (0.2 atm) and half will break between 90 and 130 kPa (0.9 to 1.2 atm).
Wind blast : The energy dragging of wind gusts is directly proportional to their speed cubes multiplied by the duration. This wind can reach several hundred kilometers per hour.
Thermal Radiation
Nuclear weapons emit large amounts of heat radiation as visible light, infrared, and ultraviolet, whose atmospheres are highly transparent. This is known as "Flash". The main hazards are burns and eye injuries. On sunny days, this injury can occur far beyond the range of the explosion, depending on the outcome of the weapon. Fires can also be initiated by early thermal radiation, but the following high winds because the explosive waves can extinguish almost all fires, unless the result is very high, where the range of thermal effects is very far ranging from explosive effects, as observed. from explosions in various multi-megatons. This is because the intensity of the explosive effect decreases with the third spacing force of the explosion, while the intensity of the radiation effect decreases with the strength of the second spacing. This results in a variety of thermal effects that increase significantly beyond the explosive range due to higher and higher device yields being detonated. Thermal radiation accounts between 35-45% of the energy released in the explosion, depending on the outcome of the device. In urban areas, fire suppression that is ignited by thermal radiation may be only a minor problem, as in a surprise fire attack can also be initiated by electrically induced explosion-induced power shorts, gas pilot lights, reversed stoves, and other ignition sources, such as cases in bombing at breakfast in Hiroshima. Whether or not these secondary fires will in turn be extinguished as modern non-wood bricks and concrete buildings collapsing on themselves from the same explosive wave are uncertain, not least from that, as the masking effects of modern city sights on thermal and explosive transmissions continue to be examined. When flammable skeletal buildings were blown up in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, they did not burn as quickly as they would if they stood still. The unburned debris generated by the explosion is often enclosed and prevents burning of combustible materials. Fire experts suggest that unlike Hiroshima, due to the modern design and construction of the US city, a storm of fire in modern times is unlikely after nuclear explosions. This does not exclude fires from being started, but means that these fires will not form into a firestorm, as it is largely the difference between modern building materials and those used in the era of World War II Hiroshima.
There are two types of eye injuries from thermal radiation weapons:
Flash blindness is caused by the initial brilliant light flash produced by nuclear explosions. More light energy is received in the retina than can be tolerated, but less than that required for permanent injury. The retina is particularly susceptible to visible short-wavelength infrared light, since this portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is focused by the lens on the retina. The result is visual pigment bleaching and temporary blindness up to 40 minutes.
Retinal burns that cause permanent damage from scarring are also caused by direct heat energy concentration in the retina by the lens. This will happen only when the fireball is actually in the field of vision of a person and will become a relatively unusual injury. Retinal burns can be maintained at a considerable distance from the explosion. High explosion, and clear fireball size, yield function and range will determine the extent and extent of retinal scarring. Scars in the visual field of the center will be more crippling. Generally, visual limited field defects, which are barely visible, are all that may happen.
When thermal radiation attacks an object, some will be reflected, some transmitted, and the remainder is absorbed. The fraction absorbed depends on the nature and color of the material. Thin materials can transmit a lot. Light-colored objects may reflect a lot of incident radiation and thus escape damage, such as anti-flash white paint. The absorbed thermal radiation raises the surface temperature and produces charred, saline, and wood burning, paper, cloth, etc. If the material is a poor thermal conductor, heat is limited to the surface of the material.
The actual ignition material depends on how long the thermal pulse lasts and the thickness and moisture of the target. Near ground zero where the energy flux exceeds 125 J/cm 2 , what can burn, will. Furthermore, only the most easily lit materials will be lit. Burner effects are exacerbated by secondary fires initiated by the effects of explosive waves such as from damaged stoves and furnaces.
In Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, an extraordinary fire storm developed within 20 minutes of the explosion and destroyed more buildings and homes, built of "fragile" wood materials. The noisy winds have strong winds blowing toward the center of the fire from all points of the compass. This is not unusual for a nuclear explosion, which has been frequently observed in large forest fires and following incendiary attacks during World War II. Although fires destroyed a large area of ​​Nagasaki city, there was no real fire storm that occurred in the city, although higher-yielding weapons were used. Many factors explain this as a contradiction, including the different bombing times of Hiroshima, the terrain, and most importantly, the lower fuel/fuel density in the city compared to Hiroshima.
Nagasaki may not provide enough fuel for the development of a fire storm compared to many buildings on the flat plain in Hiroshima.
When thermal radiation runs, more or less, in a straight line of fireballs (except spread) any frosted object will produce a protective shadow that provides protection from flash burning. Depending on the nature of the underlying surface material, areas that open beyond protective shadows will burn darker colors, such as charred wood, or brighter colors, such as asphalt. If a weather phenomenon such as mist or fog is present at the point of nuclear explosion, it spreads the flash, with luminous energy then reaches the burning sensitive substances from all directions. Under these conditions, opaque objects are therefore less effective than they should be without scattering, as they exhibit maximum shadow effects in perfect visibility environments and therefore zero scattering. Similar to a foggy or cloudy day, though there are some, if any, shadows produced by the sun on such a day, the sun's energy reaching the ground from the sun's infrared rays remains greatly reduced, being absorbed by water from clouds and energy also scattered back into space. By analogy, so is the intensity in the attenuated flash energy energy range, in units of J/cm 2 , along the tilted/horizontal range of nuclear explosions, during fog or fog conditions. Thus, although there are objects that produce shadows that are made ineffective as a shield from the flash by fog or fog, due to scattering, the fog fills the same protective role, but generally only in the range that survival in the open is simply a matter of being protected from blast flash energy that.
The heat pulses are also responsible for warming atmospheric nitrogen close to the bomb, and causing the creation of atmospheric NOx fog components. This, as part of the mushroom cloud, is shot into the stratosphere where it is responsible for separating the ozone there, in exactly the same way as the NOx compound does. The amount made depends on the outcome of the explosion and the explosion environment. Studies conducted on the total effect of nuclear explosion on the ozone layer have at least tentatively liberated after disappointing initial findings.
Maps Effects of nuclear explosions
Indirect effects
Electromagnetic pulse
Gamma rays from nuclear explosions produce high-energy electrons through Compton scattering. For high-altitude nuclear explosions, these electrons are captured in the Earth's magnetic field at altitudes between twenty and forty kilometers in which they interact with the Earth's magnetic field to produce coherent coherent electromagnetic pulse (NEMP) that lasts about a millisecond. Secondary effects can last more than one second.
The pulse is strong enough to cause a fairly long metal object (such as a cable) to act as an antenna and produce high voltage due to interaction with electromagnetic pulses. This voltage can destroy the electronics that are not held. No known biological effects of EMP. Ionized air also disrupts the radio traffic that normally bounces the ionosphere.
Electronic may be protected by wrapping it entirely in conductive materials such as metal foil; the effectiveness of the shield may be less than perfect. Proper shielding is a complex subject because of the many variables involved. Semiconductors, especially integrated circuits, are particularly susceptible to the effects of EMP as they are close to the PN junction, but this does not occur with a relatively immune-relative thermionic (or valve) tube to EMP. The Faraday cage offers no protection from the EMP effect unless the net is designed to have a hole no larger than the smallest wavelength emitted from a nuclear explosion.
Large nuclear weapons blown up at high altitude also cause geomagnetic induced currents in very long electrical conductors. The mechanism by which these geomagnetic induced currents are produced is entirely different from the gamma-ray induction pulses generated by Compton electrons.
Radar outages
The heat of the explosion causes the surrounding air to become ionized, creating a fireball. The free electrons in the fireballs affect the radio waves, especially at lower frequencies. This causes the wide area of ​​the sky to be blurred against the radar, especially those operating in the VHF and UHF frequencies, which are common for long-range remote warning radar. The effect is less for higher frequencies in the microwave region, as well as lasting a shorter time - the effect falls in both the strength and the frequency that it is exposed when the fireballs cool off and the electrons begin to re-form into the free core.
The second extinguishing effect is due to the beta particle emission of the fission product. It can travel long distances, following the Earth's magnetic field line. When they reach the upper atmosphere they cause an ionization similar to a fireball, but over a larger area. Calculations show that a fission megaton, typical of two megatons of H-bombs, would create enough beta radiation to blacken an area of ​​400 km (250 miles) for five minutes. Careful selection of altitude and exploding locations can produce highly effective radar evacuation effects.
Physical effects that cause blackouts are effects that also cause EMP, which can cause power outages. Both effects are unrelated, and similar naming can be confusing.
Ionizing radiation
About 5% of the energy released in nuclear air bursts is in the form of ionizing radiation: neutrons, gamma rays, alpha particles and electrons move at speeds up to the speed of light. Gamma rays are high-energy electromagnetic radiation; the other is the particles that move more slowly than light. Neutrons produce almost exclusively from fission and fusion reactions, while early gamma radiation involves arising from this reaction as well as resulting from decay of a short-lived fission product.
The intensity of the initial nuclear radiation decreases rapidly with the distance from the point of explosion because the radiation spreads to a larger area when the radiation away from the explosion (inverse-square law). This is also reduced by atmospheric absorption and scattering.
Radiation characters received in a particular location also vary with the distance from the explosion. Near the point of explosion, the intensity of neutrons is greater than the intensity of gamma, but with increasing distance the ratio of neutrons-gamma decreases. Ultimately, the neutron component of the initial radiation becomes meaningless compared to the gamma component. The range for significant levels of initial radiation did not increase sharply with weapons and, as a result, the initial radiation became less dangerous as yields increased. With larger weapons, above 50 kt (200 TJ), explosions and thermal effects are much more important so that rapid radiation effects can be neglected.
Neutron radiation serves to transmit the surrounding material, often making it radioactive. When added to the dust of radioactive material released by the bomb itself, a large amount of radioactive material is released into the environment. This form of radioactive contamination is known as nuclear fallout and poses a major risk of exposure to ionizing radiation for large nuclear weapons.
Details of the design of nuclear weapons also affect neutron emissions: Hiroshima bomb-type bombs divulge far more neutrons than the Nagasaki twin-killing type bombs because light nuclei (protons) dominate in TNT molecules exploding (surrounding Nagasaki nuclei) bombs) slow down the neutrons very efficient while heavier iron atoms in forging steel noses from Hiroshima bombs propagate neutrons without absorbing much of the neutron energy.
It was found in early experiments that usually most of the neutrons released in the chain reaction of the fission bomb were absorbed by the bomb box. Building a bomb box of transmitted material rather than absorbing neutrons can make bombs more deadly for humans than rapid neutron radiation. This is one of the features used in the development of neutron bombs.
Summary of effects
The following table summarizes the most important effects of a single nuclear explosion under ideal and bright skies, weather conditions. Tables like these are calculated from a nuclear weapons scale law. Advanced computer modeling of real-world conditions and how their impact on damage to modern urban areas has found that most scale laws are too simple and tend to overestimate the effects of nuclear explosions. Because only a simple, unclassified, simple-scale law does not take important things like varying the soil topography to simplify the calculation time and the length of the equation. The scaling laws used to generate the table below, assuming, among other things, the perfect level target area, no weakening effects of urban concealment, e.g. skyscrapers overshadow, and no additional effects of reflections and breakthroughs by city streets. As a comparison point in the chart below, the most likely nuclear weapons used against the lower-value target cities in global nuclear war are in the sub-megaton range. Weapons ranging from 100 to 475 kilotons have become the most numerous in the US and Russian nuclear arsenals; for example a warhead that completes a Russian Bulava submarine launching a ballistic missile (SLBM) has a yield of 150 kilotons. An example of the US is the W76 and W88 warheads, with W76 yielding lower to twice as much as W88 in the US nuclear arsenal.
1 For direct radiation effects, tilt ranges over the ground range are shown here, as some effects are not given even at zero for some altitude altitudes. If the effect occurs at ground zero, the ground range can be lowered from the oblique range and the height of the burst (Pythagoras theorem).
2 "Acute radiation syndrome" corresponds here with a total dose of one gray, "turning off" to ten gray. This is only a rough estimate because biological conditions are ignored here.
Other complicated matters, under the scenario of global nuclear war, under conditions similar to that during the Cold War, strategically important cities, such as Moscow and Washington, are likely to be hit not once, but many times from sub -megaton who can independently re-enter multiple vehicle entries, in a cluster bomb configuration or "cookie cutter". It has been reported that during the height of the Cold War in the 1970s Moscow was targeted up to 60 warheads. The reason that the cluster bomb concept is favored in urban targeting is twofold, the first being the fact that a large single warhead is much easier to neutralize as both successful tracking and interception by an anti-ballistic missile system than when several small approaching small warheads approaching. This strength in the number of advantages for lower yield warheads is further exacerbated by such warheads as it tends to move at higher entrance speeds, due to smaller package sizes, more lean their physics, assuming both nuclear weapon designs are the same (exceptions design into a sophisticated W88). ). The second reason for this cluster bomb, or 'layering' (using repeated blows with accurate low-yield weapons), is that this tactic along with limiting the risk of failure, also reduces individual bomb results, and therefore reduces the likelihood of serious guarantees. damage to non-targeted civilian areas, including from neighboring countries. This concept was pioneered by Philip J. Dolan and others.
Other phenomena
Gamma rays from the nuclear process that precede the actual explosion may be partly responsible for the following fireballs, as they may heat up nearby air and/or other materials. Much of the energy that continues to form fireballs is in the soft X-ray region of the electromagnetic spectrum, with X-rays being produced by inelastic collisions of high-speed fission and fusion products. These are the reaction products and not gamma rays that contain most of the energy from nuclear reactions in the form of kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of this fission and fusion fragment is converted into internal radiation energy and then by approximately follows the process of radiating black matter that radiates in the soft X-ray region. As a result of many inelastic collisions, part of the kinetic energy of the fission fragments is converted into internal energy and radiation. Some electrons are removed entirely from atoms, causing ionization, others elevated to a higher (or vibrant) energy state while still attached to the atomic nucleus. In a very short period of time, perhaps one hundredth of a microsecond or more, the weapon residue is essentially composed of atoms completely released (ionized), many of which last are in an excited state, together with the corresponding free electrons. The system then immediately emits electromagnetic (thermal) radiation, which is determined by temperature. Since this is a sequence of 10 7 degrees, most of the energy emitted in microseconds or more is in the soft X-ray region. To understand this one it should be remembered that the temperature depends on the average internal energy/heat of the particle in a given volume, and the internal energy or heat is due to kinetic energy.
For an explosion in the atmosphere, the fireball rapidly expands to its maximum size, and then begins to cool as it rises like a balloon through buoyancy in the surrounding air. Because it takes a vortex ring flow pattern with a glowing material in the vortex core as seen in certain photographs. This effect is known as a mushroom cloud.
The sand will melt into glass when it is close enough to a nuclear fireball to be drawn into it, and thus heated to the temperature required to do so; this is known as trinitite.
At the explosion of a nuclear bomb, lightning discharge sometimes occurs.
Traces of smoke are often seen in photos of nuclear explosions. This is not from the explosion; they were abandoned by the rocket sound that was launched shortly before the blast. This line allows observation of shock waves which are not usually seen in the moments after the explosion.
The heat and flakes of air created by nuclear explosions can cause rain; debris is estimated to do this by acting as a core of cloud condensation. During the city fire storm followed by the Hiroshima explosion, water droplets were recorded as the size of marbles. It's called black rain , and has served as a source of books and movies of the same name. Black rain is unusual after a major fire, and is generally produced by pyrocumulus clouds during large forest fires. The rain directly above Hiroshima on that day is said to have started around 9 am with it covering a vast area of ​​hypocenter to the northwest, heavy rain for an hour or more in some areas. Rain directly above the city may have been carrying neutron-activated building-burning products, but it does not carry any significant debris or nuclear fall, although this is generally contrary to what is lacking from other technical sources. The "oily" black soot particles, are characteristic of incomplete combustion in the city fire storm.
An einsteinium element is found when analyzing nuclear fallout.
The side effects of Pascal-B nuclear testing during Operation Plumbbob may have resulted in the first man-made objects being launched into space. The so-called "good thunder" effect from underground explosions may have launched metal cover plates into space at six times the Earth's breakout speed, though evidence is debatable.
Survivability
It really depends on factors such as if inside or outside, the size of the explosion, the proximity to the explosion, and to a lesser degree the wind direction brings down the fall. Death is highly probable and radiation poisoning is almost certain if one is trapped in an open field with no field or masking effect building within a 0-3 km radius of 1 megaton airflow, and 50% chance of explosive death extends out to ~ 8 km from a 1 megaton atmospheric explosion the same one.
To highlight the variability in the real world, and the effects that can be done indoors, despite the lethal radiation and blast zone extending well past its position in Hiroshima, Akiko Takakura survived the effects of a 16 kt atomic bomb at a distance of 300 meters from a hypocenter, with only minor injuries, mainly because of its position in the lobby of the Bank of Japan, a reinforced concrete building, at the time. On the contrary, an unknown person sitting outside, completely exposed, on the steps of Sumitomo Bank, next to the Bank of Japan, receives a deadly third degree burn and then possibly killed by the explosion, in that order, within two seconds.
With medical attention, radiation exposure can last up to 200 acute doses of exposure exposure. If a group of people is exposed to 50 to 59 acute rems (within 24 hours) of radiation dose, nothing will be exposed to radiation. If the group is exposed to 60 to 180 brakes, 50% will become ill with radiation poisoning. If treated medically, all groups of 60-180 brakes will survive. If the group is exposed to 200 to 450 brakes, most or all of the groups will fall ill. 50% of the 200-450 brake group will die within two to four weeks, even with medical care. If the group is exposed to 460 to 600 brakes, 100% of the group will experience radiation poisoning. 50% of the 460-600 brake group will die within one to three weeks. If the group is exposed to 600 to 1000 brakes, 50% will die within one to three weeks. If the group is exposed 1,000 to 5,000 brakes, 100% of the group will die within 2 weeks. At 5,000 brakes, 100% of the group will die within 2 days.
See also
References
External links
- Radiation Shield Material - Barrier Shielding Table showing the size of lead, steel, concrete, soil and wood required to provide a protection factor (PF) in the range from PF 2 to PF 1,073,741,824.0.
- Overhead Dose Radiation - The ground covering table shows how much earth cover is needed to provide radiation security, based on bomb size, distance from ground zero, and constant 15 MPH wind.
- Nuclear Weapon Testing Effects - Comprehensive video archive
- Underground Bombing Place
- The Federation of American Scientists provides solid information about weapons of mass destruction, including nuclear weapons and their influence
- Nuclear Warfare Skills is a public domain text and is a good resource on how to survive a nuclear attack.
- Ground Zero: Javascript simulation of the effects of nuclear explosions in the city
- Nuclear Oklahoma Geological Analysis Catalog Explosion of 2,199 explosion list with date, country, location, result, etc.
- Australian Government Database for all nuclear explosions
- The Nuclear Weapon Archive of Carey Sublette (NWA) is a reliable source of information and has links to other sources.
- NWA explosion model repositories are mainly used for effect tables (especially BLAST and WE DOS programs)
- Nuclear Weapon Effects Calculator - a Javascript form to calculate the explosion, heat, and radiation effects of the explosive results provided.
- HYDESim: High-Yield Detonation Effect Simulator - Google Maps and Javascript mashup to calculate explosive effect.
- NUKEMAP - Google Maps/Javascript mapper effect, which includes fireball size, explosion pressure, ionizing radiation, and thermal radiation as well as qualitative descriptions.
- Nuclear Weapon Frequently Asked Questions
- Atomic Forum
- Samuel Glasstone and Philip J. Dolan, Nuclear Weapons Effect, Third Edition, US Department of Defense & amp; Agency for Energy Research and Development is Available Online
- Emergency Resources and Nuclear Radiation
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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