World War I (often abbreviated as WWI or WW1 ), also known as First World War , Great War , or War to End All Wars , is a global war that originated in Europe from July 28, 1914 to November 11, 1918. Over 70 million military personnel, including 60 million people Europe, mobilized in one of the greatest wars in history. More than nine million fighters and seven million civilians were killed as a result of the war (including the victims of a number of genocides), the level of victims exacerbated by technological and industrial sophistication from the enemy, and the tactical deadlock caused by exhausting trenches. It was one of the deadliest conflicts in history and sparked major political changes, including the 1917-1923 Revolution in many of the countries involved. Unresolved competition at the end of the conflict contributed to the start of the Second World War twenty-one years later.
The war drew all the great powers of the world economy, gathered in two opposing alliances: the Allies (based on the Three Entente of the Russian Empire, the Third Republic of France, and the Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland) versus the German and Austrian-Hungarian Central Blocks. Although Italy is a member of the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary, it does not join the Central Bloc, as the Austro-Hungarians have carried out attacks against the terms of the alliance. These alliances were rearranged and expanded as more countries entered the war: Italy, Japan and the United States joined the Allies while the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria joined the Central Bloc.
The trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, the heir to the Austrian-Hungarian throne, by Yugoslavia nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This triggered a diplomatic crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Serbian Empire and, as a result, international, formed during the previous decades, were called. Within a few weeks the main forces were at war, and the conflict soon spread throughout the world.
Russia was the first to command partial mobilization of its troops on July 24-25, and when on 28 July Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, Russia announced a general mobilization on 30 July. Germany gave an ultimatum to Russia to demobilize, and when it was rejected, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Due to the defeat on the Eastern Front, Russia urges Triple Entente France's allies to open a second front in the west.
Japan entered the war on the side of the Allies on August 23, 1914, seizing the opportunity of German diversion with the European War to expand its sphere of influence in China and the Pacific.
More than forty years earlier in 1870, the Franco-Prussian War had ended the Second French Empire and France had surrendered the Alsace-Lorraine province to the unified Germany. The bitterness of the defeat and the determination to reclaim Alsace-Lorraine made acceptance of Russia's plea for help an easy option, so France started full mobilization on 1 August and, on August 3, Germany declared war on France. The border between France and Germany was strongly fortified on both sides so that, according to Schlieffen's Plan, Germany then invaded Belgium and Luxembourg neutral before moving towards France from the north, leading Britain to declare war on Germany on August 4 because of their Belgian neutrality violations.
After the German march in Paris was halted in the Battle of Marne, what was known as the Western Front was resolved by a friction battle, with a little trench line that changed slightly until 1917. On the Eastern Front, Russian troops led a successful campaign against Austro-Hungary, but Germany halted the invasion of East Prussia in the battle of Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes. In November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Bloc, opening the fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia, and Sinai Peninsula. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Bloc. Romania joined the Allies in 1916. After the sinking of seven US merchant vessels by German submarines, and the revelation that the Germans were trying to get Mexico to fight in the United States, the United States declared war on Germany on April 6, 1917.
The Russian government collapsed in March 1917 with the February Revolution, and the October Revolution followed by a further military defeat brought Russia to reconcile with the Central Block through the Brest-Litovsk Treaty, which gave Germany a significant victory. After the stunning German Spring Assault along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies mobilized and expelled Germany in a successful Hundred Days Attack. On November 4, 1918, the Austro-Hungarian empire approved the Armistice of Villa Giusti, and Germany, which had its own problems with the revolutionaries, approved a ceasefire on 11 November 1918, ending the war in victory for the Allies.
At the end of the war or shortly thereafter, the German Empire, the Russian Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire cease to exist. National borders were redrawn, with nine independent states restored or fabricated, and German colonies were divided among the winners. During the 1919 Paris Peace Conference, the Great Four powers (Britain, France, the United States, and Italy) imposed their conditions in a series of agreements. The League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing the repetition of such conflicts. This attempt failed, and economic depression, renewal of nationalism, the weakening of the successor state, and feelings of humiliation (especially in Germany) eventually contributed to the beginning of World War II.
Video World War I
Name
From the time of its inception to the approach of World War II, the First World War was called only World War or Great War and after that First World War or World War I. At that time, sometimes called "war to end war" or "war to end all wars" because of its unparalleled scale and destruction.
In Canada, the Maclean magazine in October 1914 wrote, "Some wars call themselves. During the interwar period (1918-1939), the war was most commonly called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries.
The term "First World War" was first used in September 1914 by German biologist and philosopher Ernst Haeckel, who claimed that "there is no doubt that the course and character of the dreaded 'European War'... will be the first world war in the full meaning of the word, "quoted the wire service report on The Indianapolis Star on September 20, 1914. After the start of the Second World War in 1939, the term World War I or The First World War was standardized, with British and Canadian historians supporting the First World War and World War I .
In his introduction to Waterloo in 100 Objects , the historian Gareth Glover states: "This opening statement will cause confusion for many who grew up as the Great War was applied in 1914. -18 World War One. But to anyone who lived before 1918, the title of the Great War was applied to the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars in which England fought France almost continuously for twenty-two years from 1793 to 1815. "In 1911, historian John Holland Rose published a book called < i> William Pitt and the Great War .
Maps World War I
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Political and military alliances
During the 19th century, major European powers strove to maintain a balance of power across Europe, resulting in a complex network of political and military alliances across the continent in 1900. It began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia , and Austria. When Germany united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German state. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of Three Emperors (German: Dreikaiserbund) between the kings of Austria-Hungary, Russia, and Germany. This agreement failed because Austria-Hungary and Russia were unable to approve the Balkan policy, leaving Germany and Austria-Hungary in an alliance formed in 1879, called the Double Alliance. This was seen as a method against Russian influence in the Balkans as the Ottoman Empire continued to weaken. The alliance was expanded in 1882 to include Italy, in what became the Alliance of Three.
Bismarck mainly works to hold Russia on the side of Germany in an effort to avoid a two-way war with France and Russia. When Wilhelm II ascended the throne as Emperor of Germany ( Kaiser ), Bismarck was forced to retire and his gradual alliance system was not emphasized. For example, Kaiser refused, in 1890, to renew the Reinsurance Agreement with Russia. Two years later, the Franco-Russian Alliance was signed to counter the forces of the Three Alliance. In 1904, Britain signed a series of agreements with France, the Entente Cordiale, and in 1907, Britain and Russia signed the Anglo-Russian Convention. Although this agreement is not officially allied with Britain or Russia, they make Britain into a future conflict involving France or Russia possibilities, and an interconnected bilateral agreement system becomes known as the Triple Entente.
Arms race
Germany's industrial and economic power has grown rapidly after the unification and establishment of the Empire in 1871 following the Franco-Prussian War. From the mid-1890s, the Wilhelm II government used this base to devote significant economic resources to build the Kaiserliche Marine (Empire of the German Empire), founded by Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, in competition with the Navy The United Kingdom for world naval supremacy. As a result, each country is trying to get out of the other in the capital ship. With the launch of HMS Conflict in Balkan
Austria-Hungary settled the Bosnian crisis of 1908-1909 by formally annexing the former Ottoman territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which had been occupied since 1878. This angered the Serbian Empire and its patron, Pan-Slavic and Russian Orthodox Empire. Russia's political maneuvering in the region undermined the fractured peace treaty in the Balkans, which came to be known as the "vat powder in Europe." In 1912 and 1913, the First Balkan War took place between the Balkan League and the crumbling Ottoman Empire. The agreement resulting from London further shrank the Ottoman Empire, creating an independent Albanian state while enlarging territorial holdings of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro and Greece. When Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece on June 16, 1913, he lost most of Macedonia to Serbia and Greece, and South Dobruja to Romania in the 33-day Second Balkan War, further shook the region. The Great Powers is able to keep this Balkan conflict, but the next one will spread throughout Europe and beyond.
Prelude
Sarajevo Murder
On June 28, 1914, the Austrian Prince Franz Ferdinand visited the capital of Bosnia, Sarajevo. A group of six assassins (Cvjetko Popovi ?, Gavrilo Princip, Muhamed Mehmedba? I ?, Nedeljko? Abrinovi ?, Trifko Grabe ?, Vaso? Ubrilovi?) Of the Yugoslav group Mlada Bosna, provided by Serbian Black Hand, have gathered on the street where Archduke's motorcade will pass, with a view to killing him. ? abrinovi? threw grenades at the car, but failed. Several people nearby were injured in the blast, but Ferdinand's convoy continued. The other killers failed to act as the car drove past them.
About an hour later, when Ferdinand returned from a visit at the Sarajevo Hospital with people wounded in the assassination attempt, the convoy wrongly turned onto the street where, incidentally, Princip stood up. With a pistol, Princip shot and killed Ferdinand and his wife, Sophie. The reaction among the people in Austria was mild, almost indifferent. As the historian Zbyn wrote? K Zeman later wrote, "the event almost failed to make any impression.On Sunday and Monday (28 and 29 June), the people in Vienna listened to music and drank wine, as if nothing had happened." Nevertheless, the political impact of killing the heirs was significant and has been described as a "9/11 effect", a terrorist event filled with historic significance, transforming political chemistry in Vienna. And although they were not close personally, Emperor Franz Joseph was very surprised and annoyed.
Expansion of violence in Bosnia and Herzegovina
The Austro-Hungarian authorities encouraged the next anti-Serb violence in Sarajevo, where Bosnian and Bosnian Croats killed two Bosnian Serbs and destroyed many Serb buildings. Violent acts against ethnic Serbs were also organized outside Sarajevo, in other Bosnian and Serbian-Bosnian cities in Bosnia and Herzegovina, controlled by Bosnia-Hungary, Croatia and Slovenia. The Austro-Hungarian authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina imprisoned and extradited about 5,500 leading Serbs, 700 to 2,200 of whom died in prison. Subsequently 460 Serbs were sentenced to death. A special Bosniak militia known as Schutzkorps was founded and persecuted the Serbs.
July Crisis
The killing caused a month of diplomatic maneuvering between Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia, France and Britain, called the July Crisis. Believing correctly that Serbian officials (especially Black Hands officers) were involved in a conspiracy to kill Archduke, and wanted to finally end Serbian interference in Bosnia, Austria-Hungary sent to Serbia on July 23, July Ultimatum, a series of ten demands made with deliberately unacceptable, in an attempt to provoke a war with Serbia. Serbia decided on a general mobilization on the 25th. Serbia accepted all provisions of the ultimatum except for chapter six, which demanded that Austrian delegates be allowed in Serbia for the purpose of participation in the investigation of the killings. After this, Austria broke off diplomatic relations with Serbia and, on the following day ordered partial mobilization. Finally, on July 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia.
On July 29, Russia, in favor of Serbia, declared partial mobilization of Austria-Hungary. On the 30th, Russia ordered a general mobilization. German Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg waited until the 31st for an appropriate response, when Germany declared a "war of danger". Kaiser Wilhelm II asked his cousin, Tsar Nicolas II, to suspend the general mobilization of Russia. When he refused, Germany issued an ultimatum calling for a halted mobilization, and a commitment not to support Serbia. The others were sent to France, asking him not to support Russia if he wanted to defend Serbia. On August 1, after Russia's response, Germany mobilized and declared war on Russia. It also led to a general mobilization in Austria-Hungary on 4 August.
The German government issued a lawsuit to France that the country remains neutral as they have to decide on the implementation plan to be implemented, it is difficult if not impossible to change the spread while it is in progress. The modified Schlieffen Plan Germany, Aufmarsch II West , will deploy 80% of troops in the west, and Aufmarsch I Ost and Aufmarsch II Ost will deploy 60 % in the west and 40% in the east because this is the maximum that the infrastructure of the East Prussia train can carry. France did not respond, but sent a mixed message by ordering their troops to pull 10 km (6 mi) from the border to avoid incidents, and at the same time ordered the mobilization of its reserves. Germany responded by mobilizing its own reserves and implementing the Aufmarsch II West . On August 1, Wilhelm ordered General Moltke to "lead the whole... army to the East" after he was wrongly informed that Britain would remain neutral as long as France was not attacked. The general assured Kaiser that improvised mobilization of millions of people was unthinkable and which made it possible for France to attack Germany "behind" might prove to be disastrous. But Wilhelm insisted that the German army should not march to Luxembourg until he received a telegram sent by his cousin, George V, explaining that there was a misunderstanding. Finally Kaiser told Moltke, "Now you can do what you want." Germany attacked Luxembourg on August 2, and on 3 August declared war on France. On August 4, after Belgium refused to allow German troops to cross its border into France, Germany declared war on Belgium as well. Britain declared war on Germany at 19:00 UTC on August 4, 1914 (effective from 11 pm), after an "unsatisfactory response" to the British ultimatum that Belgium should remain neutral.
Progress war
Opening hostilities
Confusion between the Central Block
The Central Block strategy is experiencing miscommunication. Germany has promised to support the Austrian-Hungarian invasion of Serbia, but the interpretation of what this means is different. The pre-tested placement plan had been replaced in early 1914, but had not been tested in practice. Austro-Hungarian leaders believe Germany will cover the north side against Russia. Germany, however, imagines Austria-Hungary directing most of its forces against Russia, while Germany deals with France. This confusion forced the Austrian-Hungarian Army to divide its forces between the Russian and Serbian fronts.
Serbian Campaign
Austria stormed and fought Serb troops at the Battle of Cer and the Battle of the Republic on 12 August. Over the next two weeks, the Austrian offensive was thrown back with huge losses, which marked the first major Allied victory in the war and destroyed Austria-Hungary's hopes of a quick victory. As a result, Austria had to defend a sizeable force on the Serbian front, undermining his efforts against Russia. The Serbian defeat of the Austro-Hungarian invasion of 1914 has been called one of the great victories of the 20th century.
German troops in Belgium and France
At the outbreak of World War I, 80% of German troops were deployed as seven field troops in the west according to the Aufmarsch II West plan. However, they were then assigned to carry out a plan for the placement of retired Aufmarsch I West, also known as the Schlieffen Plan. This will move the German army through northern Belgium and to France, in an attempt to besiege the French army and then break the 'second defense area' of Verdun and Paris forts and the Marne river.
Aufmarsch I West was one of four placement plans available for the German General Staff in 1914. Each plan favored a particular operation, but did not specifically explain how the operation was carried out, so the commanding officers took them out on their own initiative and with minimal supervision. Aufmarsch I West , designed for a front-line war with France, was retired after it became clear that it was not relevant to the war Germany could face; Russia and Britain are expected to help France, and there is no possibility of Italian and Austrian-Hungarian troops unavailable for operations against France. But apart from its discrepancies, and the availability of more plausible and decisive options, it retains a certain allure because of its offensive nature and the pessimism of pre-war thinking, which expects offensive operations to be short-lived, expensive in accidents, and impossible to be decisive. Thus, the spread of Aufmarsch II West was changed for the 1914 attacks, despite the unrealistic goals and insufficient strength that Germany possessed for decisive success. Moltke took Schlieffen's plan and modified the deployment of troops on the western front by reducing the right wing, which advanced through Belgium, from 85% to 70%. Ultimately, Schlieffen's plan was radically modified by Moltke, who could more properly be called the Moltke Plan.
The plan called for the right side of the Germans' face to bypass French troops concentrated on the French-German border, defeating French troops closer to Luxembourg and Belgium and moving south to Paris. Initially Germany succeeded, especially in the Border Battle (14-24 August). On September 12, France, with help from the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), halted German progress east of Paris in the First Battle of Marne (5-12 September) and pushed the German forces back about 50 km (31 mi). The French attack south of Alsace, which was launched on August 20 with the Battle of Mulhouse, had limited success.
In the east, Russia attacked with two soldiers. In response, Germany quickly moved the 8th Field Army from its previous role as reserve for the French invasion of East Prussia by train across the German Empire. The troops, led by General Paul von Hindenburg, defeated Russia in a series of battles that are collectively known as the First Battle of Tannenberg (17 August - 2 September). While the Russian invasion failed, it led to the transfer of German forces to the east, allowing the Allied victory at the First Battle of Marne. This means Germany failed to achieve its goal of avoiding a long two front war. However, the German army has struggled to be a good defensive position within France and effectively halves the supply of French coal. It has also killed or permanently disabled 230,000 more French and British troops than the lost. However, the question of communication and command decisions in question led to Germany having an opportunity for more decisive results.
Asia and the Pacific
New Zealand occupied the German Samoa (later Western Samoa) on August 30, 1914. On September 11, the Australian Naval Force and Military Expedition landed on the island of Neu Pommern (later New Britain), which is part of New Guinea Germany. On October 28, the German cruiser SMS Emden drowned the Russian cruiser ship, Zhemchug in the Battle of Penang. Japan seized the German colonies of Micronesia and, following the Siege of Tsingtao, the German coaching port of Qingdao on the Chinese peninsula of Shandong. Since Vienna refused to withdraw SMS "Kaiserin Elisabeth" from Tsingtao, Tsingtao, Japan declared war not only in Germany but also in Austria-Hungary; the ship participated in Tsingtao's defense in which the ship sank in November 1914. Within months, Allied forces had seized all German territory in the Pacific; only isolated trading robbers and some holdouts in New Guinea are left.
African Campaign
Some of the first clashes of war involve British, French and German colonial troops in Africa. On August 6-7, French and British troops stormed the German protectorate Togoland and Cameroon. On August 10, German forces in Southwest Africa attacked South Africa; sporadic and fierce fighting continued for the rest of the war. The German colonial armies in East Germany Africa, led by Colonel Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck, fought in a guerrilla war campaign during World War I and only gave up two weeks after the ceasefire came into force in Europe.
Indian Support for Allies
Germany sought to use Indian nationalism and pan-Islamism to its advantage, instigated an uprising in India, and sent a mission urging Afghanistan to join the war on the side of the Central powers. However, contrary to Britain's fear of an uprising in India, the outbreak of war saw an unprecedented outpouring of loyalty and goodwill toward Britain. Indian political leaders from the Indian National Congress and other groups are eager to support the British war effort, as they believe that strong support for the war effort will increasingly be the cause of Indian House Rules. The Indian Army actually exceeded the British Army at the start of the war; about 1.3 million Indian troops and laborers serving in Europe, Africa and the Middle East, while the central and prince governments are sending large supplies of food, money and ammunition. Altogether, 140,000 people serve on the Western Front and nearly 700,000 in the Middle East. The death toll of the Indian army reached 47,746 people dead and 65,126 wounded during World War I. War-torn suffering, as well as the failure of the British government to grant self-rule to India after the end of hostilities, sparked disappointment and sparked a campaign for full independence led by Mohandas K. Gandhi and others.
Western Front
Trap battle begins
Military tactics developed before World War I failed to keep pace with technological progress and have become obsolete. This progress has enabled the creation of a strong defense system, whose military tactics can not be solved for most of the war. Barbed wire is a significant obstacle to the advancement of the mass infantry, while the artillery, far more deadly than in the 1870s, coupled with machine guns, made crossroads very difficult. Commanders on both sides failed to develop tactics for breaking deep-rooted positions with few casualties. However, in time, technology begins to produce new offensive weapons, such as gas and tank wars.
Right after the First Battle of Marne (5-12 September 1914), the Entente and the German forces repeatedly tried to maneuver north in an attempt to surround each other: this series of maneuvers known as "Race to the Sea". When these efforts failed, the warring troops soon found themselves facing an unbroken line from positions rooted from Lorraine to the coast of Belgium. Britain and France tried to attack, while Germany defended the occupied territories. As a result, Germany's trenches are much better built than enemies; The British-French ditch was intended only to be "temporary" before the allied forces managed to penetrate the German defense.
Both sides are trying to break the deadlock using scientific and technological advances. On April 22, 1915, at the Second Battle of Ypres, Germany (in violation of the Hague Convention) used chlorine gas for the first time on the Western Front. Several types of gas soon became widely used by both sides, and although never proved to be a decisive weapon and win the war, poisonous gas became one of the most feared and most remembered horrors of war. The tanks were developed by the British and French and were first used in combat by the British during the Battle of Flers-Courcelette (part of the Battle of the Somme) on 15 September 1916, with only partial success. However, their effectiveness will grow as the war progresses; Allied build tanks in large numbers, while Germany uses only a few of their own designs, equipped with captured Allied tanks.
Continuation of the battle trench
No party has been proven capable of delivering decisive blows over the next two years. Throughout 1915-17, the United Kingdom and France suffered more casualties than Germany, due to both strategic and tactical positions chosen by the parties. Strategically, while Germany only put up one major attack, the Allies made several attempts to break through the German line.
In February 1916, Germany attacked the French defense position in Verdun. Lasted until December 1916, the battle saw German's early gains, before the French counterattack restored the problem to near their starting point. The victim is bigger for France, but Germany is also very bloody, with 700,000 to 975,000 dead among two fighters. Verdun became a symbol of French determination and self-sacrifice.
The Somme battle was an Anglo-French attack from July to November 1916. This offensive opening (July 1, 1916) saw the British Army survive on the bloodiest day of its history, suffering 57,470 victims, including 19,240 people killed, on the first day alone. Somme attacks the entire cost of the British Army about 420,000 victims. France suffered about 200,000 other casualties and Germany estimated at 500,000. Wild fire is not the only factor that takes a life, the disease that appears in the trench is the main killer on both sides. Living conditions make it so many diseases and infections occur. Foot trenches, shells, blindness/burns from mustard gas, ticks, ditch fever, cooties (body fleas) and 'Spanish flu'
The protracted action in Verdun throughout 1916, combined with the bloodshed in the Somme, brought exhausted French troops into the brink of collapse. The futile attempts of using frontal assaults came at a high price for England and France and caused the French Army Mutinies to be widespread, following the failure of the costly Nivelle Attack from April to May 1917. The Battle of British Arras was simultaneously more limited in scope, and more successful , although in the end the strategic value is small. The smaller part of the Arras attack, the capture of Vimy Ridge by the Canadian Corps, became very significant for the country: the idea that Canada's national identity was born out of battle is a widely held opinion in Canadian military and general history.
The last major attack on this period was the British attack (with French support) at Passchendaele (July-November 1917). This attack opened with great promise to the Allies, before it stalled in the mud October. The victims, though debated, are roughly the same, around 200,000-400,000 per side.
The years of this trench warfare in the West do not see the great exchange of territory and, as a result, are often considered static and unchanging. However, during this period, British, French and German tactics continued to evolve to meet new battlefield challenges.
At the beginning of the war, the German Empire had cruisers spread all over the world, some of which were then used to attack Allied ship merchant shipments. The Royal Navy systematically hunted them down, though not without shame because of its inability to protect Allied shipments. Before the beginning of the war, it was widely understood that Britain held the strongest and most powerful naval position in the world. The publication of the book The Influence of Sea Power on History by Alfred Thayer Mahan in 1890 was intended to encourage the United States to increase their naval power. Instead, this book was made for Germany and inspired its readers to try to master the Royal Navy excessively. For example, the German light cruiser SMS Emden , part of the East Asian Squadron stationed in Qingdao, confiscated or destroyed 15 merchants, and sank Russian cruisers and French destroyers. However, the vast majority of the East-Asia German squadron - composed of armored cruiser SMS Scharnhorst and Gneisenau , light cruisers NÃÆ'¼rnberg and Leipzig and two transport ships - had no orders to rob shipments and instead headed for Germany when meeting with British warships. The German fleet and Dresden drowned two armored explorers at the Battle of Coronel, but were nearly destroyed at the Battle of the Falkland Islands in December 1914, with only Dresden and several servants fleeing, after the Battle of MÃÆ'¡sa Tierra it has also been destroyed or exiled.
Immediately after the outbreak of hostilities, the British started the German sea blockade. This strategy proved to be effective, cutting off important military and civilian supplies, although the blockade violates recognized international law codified by several international agreements over the last two centuries. Britain mines international waters to prevent the ship from entering all parts of the ocean, causing the danger of even a neutral vessel. Due to a limited response to this British tactic, Germany expects the same response to unlimited submarine warfare.
The Battle of Jutland (Germany: Skagerrakschlacht , or "Skagerrak Battle") evolved into the greatest naval battle in the war. It was the only full-scale war fighting during the war, and one of the greatest in history. The High Sea Fleet Kaiserliche Marine, commanded by Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer, fought with the Royal Navy Fleet, led by Admiral Sir John Jellicoe. The engagement stood up, as Germany was defeated by a larger British fleet, but managed to escape and cause more damage to the British fleet than they received. Strategically, however, the British asserted their control of the sea, and most of the German surface fleets remained confined to ports during the war.
German U-boats are trying to cut supply lines between North America and the UK. The nature of submarine warfare means that attacks often come without warning, giving the crew a little hope of survival. The United States launched a rally, and Germany changed its rules of engagement. After the sinking of the RMS Lusitania passenger ship in 1915, Germany promised not to target passenger ships, while the British armed their merchant ships, putting them outside the "cruise rule" rule, demanding warnings and crew movements to " safe place "(the standard that lifeboats do not meet). Finally, in early 1917, the Germans adopted an unlimited submarine war policy, realizing that America would eventually enter the war. Germany tried to strangle the Allied sea route before the United States could transport large troops abroad, but after initial success finally failed to do so.
The U-boat threat was reduced in 1917, when the merchant ship began traveling in a convoy, escorted by a destroyer. This tactic makes it difficult for U Boats to find targets, which significantly reduce losses; once the hydrophone and depth charges are introduced, the accompanying destroyer can attack submerged submarines with the hopes of success. The convoy slows down the supply flow, because the ship has to wait when the convoy is assembled. The solution to the delay is an extensive program to build new cargoes. Troopships are too fast for submarines and do not travel to the North Atlantic in convoys. The U-ship has drowned more than 5,000 Allied ships, at a cost of 199 submarines. World War I also saw the use of the first aircraft carrier in battle, with HMSÃ, Southern theater
War on the Balkan
Faced with Russia, Austria-Hungary can only leave a third of its troops to attack Serbia. After suffering heavy losses, Austria briefly occupied the capital of Serbia, Belgrade. Serbia's counterattack in the Battle of Kolubara drove them out of the country at the end of 1914. During the first ten months of 1915, Austria-Hungary used most of its military reserves against Italy. German and Austro-Hungarian diplomats, however, scored a coup by persuading Bulgaria to join the attack on Serbia. The Austro-Hungarian provinces of Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia provide troops to Austria-Hungary, in combat with Serbia, Russia and Italy. Montenegro is allied with Serbia.
Bulgaria declared war on Serbia, October 12 and joined in an attack by Austro-Hungarian troops under the 250,000-strong Mackensen army that has already taken place. Serbia was conquered in less than a month, because the Central Block, now including Bulgaria, sent a total of 600,000 troops. Serbian troops, fighting on two fronts and facing a certain defeat, retreated north of Albania. The Serbs suffered defeat in the Battle of Kosovo. Montenegro closed the Serbian retreat to the Adriatic coast at the Battle of Mojkovac on 6-7 January 1916, but eventually Austria also conquered Montenegro. The surviving Serb troops were evacuated by ship to Greece. After the conquest, Serbia was divided between Austro-Hungary and Bulgaria.
In late 1915, French-British troops landed in Salonica in Greece, to offer aid and pressure his government to declare war on the Central Bloc. However, the pro-German King Constantine I dismissed the pro-Allied government of Eleftherios Venizelos before the Allied expedition forces arrived. The friction between the Greek and Allied Kings continued to accumulate with the National Schism, effectively dividing Greece between areas still loyal to the king and the temporary administration of Venizelos in Salonica. After intense negotiations and armed confrontations in Athens between Allied forces and royal forces (an incident known as Noemvriana), the Greek King resigned and his second son Alexander succeeded him; Greece then formally joined the war on the side of the Allies.
Initially, the Macedonian Front was mostly static. French and Serb forces recaptured limited Macedonia by retaking Bitola on 19 November 1916 following an expensive Monastir offensive, which brought about a stabilization ahead.
The Serbian and French troops finally made a breakthrough in September 1918, after most of the German and Austro-Hungarian troops were withdrawn. The Bulgarians were defeated at the Battle of the Dobro Mast and on 25 September 1918 British and French troops had crossed the border into Bulgaria just as the Bulgarians collapsed. Bulgaria surrendered four days later, on September 29, 1918. The German high command responded by sending troops to defend the line, but the troops were too weak to rebuild a front.
The loss of Macedonian Front means that the road to Budapest and Vienna is now open to Allied forces. Hindenburg and Ludendorff concluded that the strategic and operational balance had now shifted vividly against the Central Bloc and, the day after the collapse of Bulgaria, insisted on an immediate peace settlement.
Ottoman Empire
The Ottomans threatened the Russian Caucasus region and British communications with India through the Suez Canal. As the conflict progressed, the Ottoman Empire took advantage of the preoccupation of European powers with war and carried out massive ethnic cleansing of the native Armenians, Greeks, and Christian Assyrians, known as Armenian Genocide, Greek Genocide, and Assyrian Genocide.
Britain and France opened the foreign front with the Gallipoli campaign (1915) and Mesopotamia (1914). In Gallipoli, the Ottoman Empire successfully expelled the British, French and Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZACs). In Mesopotamia, on the contrary, after the defeat of British defenders in the Kut siege by the Ottomans (1915-16), the British Imperial forces reorganized and captured Baghdad in March 1917. Britain was assisted in Mesopotamia by local Arab and Assyrian tribes, while the Ottomans employed Kurds and Turcoman local.
Further west, the Suez Canal was defended from Ottoman attacks in 1915 and 1916; in August, German and Ottoman forces were defeated at the Battle of Romani by the ANZAC Installed Division and 52nd Infantry Division (Lowlands). After this victory, the Egyptian Expeditionary Forces advanced across the Sinai Peninsula, pushing the Ottoman forces back to the Battle of Magdhaba in December and the Battle of Rafa on the border between the Egyptian Sinai and the Ottoman Palestine in January 1917.
The Russian army generally sees success in the Caucasus. Enver Pasha, the supreme commander of the Ottoman armed forces, was ambitious and dreaming of conquering Central Asia and the areas that had been lost to Russia before. However, he is a poor commander. He launched an attack on Russia in the Caucasus in December 1914 with 100,000 troops, insisting a frontal attack on Russia's position in the mountains in winter. He lost 86% of his strength at the Battle of Sarikamish.
The Ottoman Empire, with German support, attacked Persia (modern Iran) in December 1914 in an attempt to cut Britain and Russia's access to a petroleum reservoir around Baku near the Caspian Sea. The Persians, as if neutral, had long been under British and Russian influence. The Ottomans and the Germans were assisted by Kurdish and Azeri forces, along with large numbers of Iranian tribes, such as Qashqai, Tangistan, Luristan, and Khamseh, while Russia and Britain received support from Armenian and Assyrian forces. The Persian campaign will last until 1918 and end in failure for the Ottomans and their allies. But Russia's withdrawal from the war in 1917 caused the Armenian and Assyrian forces, which have thus led to a series of defeats on Ottoman and allied forces, cut off from supply lines, outnumbered, weaponized and isolated, forcing them to fight and fleeing to the English in northern Mesopotamia.
General Yudenich, the Russian commander from 1915 to 1916, pushed Turkey out of much of the southern Caucasus with a series of victories. In 1917, Grand Duke Nicholas of Russia took over the command of the Caucasus front. Nicholas planned railroads from Georgia Russia to the conquered territories, so that new supplies could be raised for a new attack in 1917. However, in March 1917 (February in the pre-revolutionary Russian calendar), the Tsar descended on the way of the February Revolution and The Russian Caucasus army began to collapse.
The Arab Rebellion, condemned by the Arabian bureau from the British Foreign Office, began in June 1916 with the Battle of Mecca, led by Sherif Hussein of Mecca, and ended with the surrender of Usmaniyah Damascus. Fakhri Pasha, the Ottoman Ottoman commander, lasted for more than two and a half years during the Siege of Medina before giving up.
The Senussi tribe, along the Libyan border of Italy and the Egyptian England, was instigated and armed by Turkey, waging a small-scale guerrilla war against Allied forces. Britain was forced to send 12,000 troops to oppose them in the Senussi Campaign. Their revolt was eventually destroyed in mid-1916.
The total of Allied victims on the Ottoman front numbered 650,000. The total number of Ottoman victims is 725,000 (325,000 dead and 400,000 injured).
Italian Participation
Italy has been allied with the German and Austro-Hungarian Empires since 1882 as part of the Three Alliance. However, the country has its own designs in the Austrian region of Trentino, Littoral, Fiume (Rijeka) and Austrian Dalmatia. Rome has a 1902 secret pact with France, effectively eliminating its role in Alliance Three. At the beginning of hostilities, Italy refuses to troop, arguing that the Triple Alliance is defensive and Austria-Hungary is an aggressor. The Austro-Hungarian government started negotiations to secure Italian neutrality, offering the French colony of Tunisia instead. The Allies made a counter-offer in which Italy would accept South Tyrol, the Austrian Littoral and the territory on the Dalmatian coast after the Austria-Hungary defeat. It is formalized by the London Agreement. Further encouraged by the Turkish Allied invasion in April 1915, Italy joined the Triple Entente and declared war on Austria-Hungary on May 23. Fifteen months later, Italy declared war on Germany.
The Italians have numerical advantages but these advantages are lost, not only because of the difficult terrain in which the fighting takes place, but also because of the strategies and tactics used. Field Marshal Luigi Cadorna, a strong supporter of a frontal assault, dreamed of entering the Slovenian highlands, took on Ljubljana and threatened Vienna.
On the Trentino front, Austro-Hungary takes advantage of the mountain terrain, which the defender likes. After the initial strategic retreat, the front remains largely unchanged, while the Austrian KaiserschÃÆ'¼tzen and StandschÃÆ'¼tzen involve Italian Alpini in a bitter hand-to-hand combat throughout the summer. Austro-Hungarians struck back at Altopiano from Asiago, heading for Verona and Padua, in the spring of 1916 ( Strafexpedition ), but made little progress.
Beginning in 1915, the Italians under Cadorna boarded eleven attacks in front of Isonzo along the Isonzo River (So? A), northeast of Trieste. All the eleven attacks were rejected by Austro-Hungarian, who held the higher ground. In the summer of 1916, after the Battle of the DoberdÃÆ'², the Italians captured the city of Gorizia. After this small victory, the front remained static for more than a year, although some Italian attacks, centered on the Banj 'es and the Karst Highlands east of Gorizia.
The Central Block launched a demolition attack on October 26, 1917, pioneered by Germany. They achieved victory in Caporetto (Kobarid). Italian troops channeled and retreated more than 100 kilometers (62 miles) to rearrange, stabilize the front on the Piave River. Since the Italian Army has suffered heavy losses in the Caporetto Battle, the Italian Government summoned a weapon called ' 99 Boys ( Ragazzi del '99 ): ie , all men born in 1899 and earlier, and so were 18 years or older. In 1918, Austro-Hungarian failed to break through a series of battles on Piave and was eventually defeated convincingly in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto in October of that year. On November 1, the Italian Navy destroyed many Austro-Hungarian fleets stationed in Pula, preventing them from being handed over to the new Slovenian, Croatian and Serbian states. On 3 November, the Italians stormed Trieste from the sea. On the same day, the Villa Giusti Truce was signed. In mid-November 1918, the Italian military occupied all of Austria's former Litoral and had mastered the part of Dalmatia guaranteed by the Italian Pact by London. At the end of the hostilities in November 1918, Admiral Enrico Millo declared himself the Governor of Italian Dalmatia. Austria-Hungary surrendered on 11 November 1918.
Romanian participation
Romania has been allied with the Central Bloc since 1882. When the war began, however, it declared its neutrality, arguing that since Austria-Hungary itself has declared war on Serbia, Romania is not obliged to join the war. When the Entente Powers promised Romania Transylvania and Banat, large areas of eastern Hungary, in return for Romania declaring war on the Central Block, the Romanian government releases its neutrality. On August 27, 1916, the Romanian Army launched an attack on Austria-Hungary, with limited Russian support. The Romanian offensive was initially successful, against Austro-Hungarian troops in Transylvania, but the counter-attack by the Central Bloc forces drove them back. As a result of the Battle of Bucharest, the Central Bloc occupied Bucharest on December 6, 1916. The Battle of Moldova continued in 1917, resulting in an expensive stalemate for the Central Block. Russia's withdrawal from the war in late 1917 as a result of the October Revolution meant that Romania was forced to sign a truce with the Central Block on December 9, 1917.
In January 1918, Romanian troops took control of Bessarabia when the Russian Army left the province. Although the treaty was signed by the Romanian government and the Russian Bolsheviks after talks between 5 and 9 March 1918 on the withdrawal of Romanian troops from Bessarabia within two months, on 27 March 1918 Romania attached Bessarabia to its territory, officially based on an approved resolution. by the local assembly of the region in union with Romania.
Romania officially reconciled with the Central Block by signing the Bucharest Agreement on May 7, 1918. Under the agreement, Romania was obliged to end the war with the Central Bloc and make a small territorial concession for Austria-Hungary, handing control of some bait in the Carpathian Mountains, oil concessions to Germany. Instead, the Central Block recognizes Romania's sovereignty over Bessarabia. The treaty was rejected in October 1918 by the government of Alexandru Marghiloman, and Romania nominally re-entered the war on 10 November 1918. The next day, the Bucharest Agreement was annulled by the provisions of Armistice of CompiÃÆ'¨gne. Total Romanian deaths from 1914 to 1918, military and civilian, within contemporary boundaries, were estimated at 748,000.
Eastern
Initial action
While the Western Front has reached a dead end, the war continues in Eastern Europe. The original plan of Russia called for a simultaneous invasion of Galicia Austria and East Prussia. Although the early progress of Russia to Galicia was largely successful, it was pushed back from East Prussia by Hindenburg and Ludendorff at the battle of Tannenberg and Masurian Lakes in August and September 1914. Russia's underdeveloped industrial base and ineffective military leadership were instrumental in the event. that unfolds. In the spring of 1915, Russia had retreated to Galicia, and in May, the Central Block achieved a remarkable breakthrough on the southern border of Poland. On 5 August, they captured Warsaw and forced Russia to withdraw from Poland.
Russian Revolution
Despite Russia's success with the Brusilov Attack of June 1916 in eastern Galicia, dissatisfaction with the actions of the Russian government from the growing war. The offensive's success was undermined by the reluctance of other generals to exercise their power to support victory. Allied troops and Russia were revived only temporarily by Romania into the war on 27 August. German troops came to help Austro-Hungarian units in Transylvania while German-Bulgarian troops attacked from the south, and Bucharest was recaptured by the Central Bloc on December 6. Meanwhile, unrest grew in Russia, as the Tsar stays ahead. Empres Alexandra's increasingly incompetent government invited protests and resulted in his beloved killing, Rasputin, in late 1916.
In March 1917, demonstrations in Petrograd culminated in the abduction of Tsar Nicholas II and the appointment of a weak Provisional Government, which shared power with the Petrograd Soviet socialists. This arrangement causes confusion and chaos both in front and at home. Soldiers are becoming increasingly ineffective.
After the Tsar's resignation, Vladimir Lenin was escorted by train from Switzerland to Russia on 16 April 1917. He was financed by Jacob Schiff. Dissatisfaction and weakness of the Provisional Government led to the rising popularity of the Bolshevik Party, led by Lenin, who demanded an immediate end to war. The November Revolution was followed in December by a ceasefire and negotiations with Germany. At first, the Bolsheviks rejected the German term, but when German troops began marching across Ukraine without an opponent, the new government approved the Brest-Litovsk Treaty on March 3, 1918. The treaty handed over a vast territory, including Finland, the Baltic province, its parts. Poland and Ukraine to the Central Block. Despite this enormous German success, the energy needed for German occupation in the former territory of Russia may have contributed to the failure of the Spring Attack and secured relatively little food or other equipment for the Powers Sent war effort.
With the adoption of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty, the Entente ceased to exist. The Allied Forces led a small-scale invasion of Russia, partly to stop Germany from exploiting Russian resources, and to a lesser extent, to support "Whites" (as opposed to "Reds") in the Russian Civil War. Allied troops landed in Arkhangelsk and in Vladivostok as part of the Northern Russian Intervention.
Czechoslovakia Legion
The Czechoslovakian legion fought with the Entente; the goal was to win support for Czechoslovakia's independence. The Legion in Russia was founded in September 1914, in December 1917 in France (including volunteers from America) and in April 1918 in Italy. The Czechoslovakia Legionary Army defeated the Austro-Hungarian army in the Ukrainian village of Zborov, in July 1917. After this success, the number of Czechoslovak legions increased, as well as the military strength of Czechoslovakia. In the Bakhmach Battle, the Legion defeated the Germans and forced them to make a truce.
In Russia, they were deeply involved in the Russian Civil War, siding with the white people against the Bolsheviks, sometimes controlling most of the Trans-Siberian trains and conquering all of Siberia's major cities. The presence of the Czechoslovak Legion near Yekaterinburg appears to have been one of the motivations for the Tsar and his family's implementation in July 1918. The legion arrived less than a week later and seized the city. Because the Russian port of Russia is not safe, the corp is evacuated with a long detour through the port of Vladivostok. The last transport was the American ship Heffron in September 1920.
Central Powers overture peace
In December 1916, after ten months of brutal Battle of Verdun and a successful attack against Romania, Germany attempted to negotiate peace with the Allies. Soon after, US President Woodrow Wilson sought to intervene as a peacemaker, asking in a record for both sides to state their demands. The War Cabinet Lloyd George considers Germany's offer as a way to create schism among the Allies. After initial anger and consideration, they took Wilson's note as a separate effort, signaling that the United States was on the verge of entering the war against Germany after "submarine anger". While the Allies debated the response to Wilson's offer, Germany chose to reject it for the "direct exchange of views". Learning from the German response, the Allied government is free to make a clear claim in their response on January 14th. They seek recovery restoration, evacuation of occupied territories, reparations for France, Russia and Romania, and recognition of the principle of nationality. These included the liberation of the Italians, Slavs, Romanians, Czechs and Slovaks, and the creation of "free and united Poland". Regarding security issues, the Allies seek guarantees that will prevent or limit future wars, complete with sanctions, as a condition of any peace settlement. Negotiations failed and force Entente rejected Germany's offer on the grounds that Germany did not propose specific proposals.
1917-1918
Developments in 1917
The 1917 event proved decisive in ending the war, though its effect was not fully felt until 1918.
The British marine blockade began to seriously affect Germany. In response, in February 1917, the German General Staff convinced Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg to declare an infinite submarine warfare, with the aim of destroying Britain out of war. German planners estimate that unlimited submarine warfare will harm the UK as it loses shipments annually by 600,000 tons. The General Staff acknowledged that the policy would almost certainly bring the United States into conflict, but calculated that British shipping losses would be so high that they would be forced to demand peace after 5 to 6 months, before American intervention could make an impact.. In fact, the sinking tonnage increased above 500,000 tonnes per month from February to July. It peaked at 860,000 tons in April. After July, the newly reintroduced convoy system became effective in reducing U-boat threats. Britain was safe from hunger, while German industrial output fell and the United States joined the war much earlier than Germany anticipated.
On May 3, 1917, during the Nivelle Attack, the 2nd French Colonial Division, the veterans of the Battle of Verdun, refused orders, arrived drunk and unarmed. Their officers do not have the means to punish the whole division, and crude action is not immediately implemented. The French Army Mutinies eventually spread to 54 further French divisions and saw 20,000 desert people. However, calls for patriotism and duty, as well as mass arrests and trials, prompted the soldiers to return to defend their trenches, although the French army refused to participate in further offensive action. Robert Nivelle was removed from command on 15 May, replaced by General Philippe Pace, who suspended a massive bloody attack.
The Central Block Victory at the Caporetto Battle led the Allies to organize the Rapallo Conference in which they formed the Supreme War Council to coordinate the planning. Previously, British and French troops had operated under separate command.
In December, the Central Block signed a ceasefire with Russia, thus freeing large numbers of German troops for use in the west. With German troops and new American troops, the result will be decided on the Western Front. The Central Block knows that they can not win a protracted war, but they have great hopes for success based on the latest rapid attack. Furthermore, the two sides became increasingly afraid of social unrest and revolution in Europe. Thus, the two sides immediately seek a decisive victory.
In 1917, Emperor Charles I of Austria secretly tried separate peace talks with Clemenceau, through his wife's brother Sixtus in Belgium as an intermediary, unbeknownst to Germany. Italy opposed the proposal. When negotiations fail, his efforts are revealed to Germany, resulting in a diplomatic catastrophe.
Ottoman Empire Conflict, 1917-1918
In March and April 1917, at the First and Second Battles of Gaza, German and Ottoman forces halted the progress of the Egyptian Expeditionary Forces, which began in August 1916 at the Battle of Romani. In late October, the Sinai and Palestine Campaigns resumed, when General XX Corps Edmund Allenby, XXI Corps, and the Deserted Corps won the Battle of Beersheba. Two Ottoman soldiers were defeated a few weeks later at the Battle of Mughar Ridge and, in early December, Jerusalem was captured following another Ottoman defeat at the Battle of Jerusalem. Around this time, Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein was freed from his job as commander of the Eighth Army, replaced by Djevad Pasha, and a few months later the commander of the Ottoman Army in Palestine, Erich von Falkenhayn, was replaced by Otto Liman von Sanders.
In early 1918, the front line was extended and the Jordan Valley was occupied, following the First Transjordan and the Second Transjordan attack by the British Royal forces in March and April 1918. In March, most British infantry Egyptian Expeditionary Forces and Yeomanry cavalry were sent to the Western Front as consequences of the Spring Attack. They were replaced by the Indian Army unit. During several months of summer reorganization and training, a number of attacks were carried out in parts of the Ottoman frontline. This pushed the northern front line to a more favorable position for the Entente in preparation for the attack and to adjust the infantry of the recently arrived Indian Army. New in mid-September the integrated forces are ready for large-scale operations.
The reorganized Egyptian Expeditionary Forces, in addition to the additional divisions, broke the Ottoman forces at the Battle of Megiddo in September 1918. Within two days the British and Indian infantry, backed by a creeping attack, broke the front line of the Ottomans and captured the headquarters of the Eight Soldiers (Ottoman Empire) in Tulkarm, continuous trench lines in Tabsor, Arara and Seventh Army (Ottoman Empire) headquarters in Nablus. The Desert Mounted Corps passes the paused front line
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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