An avalanche (also called snowslide ) is a cohesive snow plot that is in the weaker snow layers of a cracked snow and slips down a steep slope when triggered. Landslides are usually triggered in the starting zone of mechanical failure in snowpack ( avalanche slabs ) when the strength of snow exceeds its strength but sometimes only by gradual widening ( loose avalanches b>). After initiation, landslides usually accelerate rapidly and grow in mass and volume as they hoard more snow. If the avalanche moves fast enough, some snow can mix with the air that forms snow avalanches, which is the current type of gravity.
Slides of rocks or debris, behaving in a way similar to snow, also called as landslide (see landslide). The rest of this article refers to an avalanche.
The burden on a snowpack may only be due to gravity, where failure may result from a weakening of the snowpack or an increase in load due to precipitation. Avalanches initiated by this process are known as spontaneous avalanches. Avalanches may also be triggered by other loading conditions such as human or biological related activities. Seismic activity can also trigger failures in snowpack and avalanche.
Though mainly composed of snow and airflow, large avalanches have the ability to ride ice, rocks, trees, and other surficial materials. However, they differ from mudslides that have greater fluidity, rocky avalanches that are often ice-free, and serac collapses during ice. Avalanche is not a rare or random and endemic occurrence in any mountains that accumulates a standing snowpack. Avalanches are most common during winter or spring but the movement of glaciers can cause an avalanche of ice and snow at any time of the year. In mountainous areas, avalanches are one of the most serious natural hazards to life and property, with their destructive abilities resulting from their potential to bring large masses of snow at high speeds.
There is no universally accepted classification system for various forms of avalanches. Avalanches can be described by their size, their destructive potential, their initiation mechanisms, their composition and their dynamics.
Video Avalanche
Formation
Most landslides occur spontaneously during storms under increased loads due to snowfall. The second biggest cause of snowfall is the metamorphic changes in snowpack as it melts due to solar radiation. Other natural causes include rain, earthquakes, heavy rain and hail. Triggers artificial avalanche include skiers, snowmobiles, and controlled explosive work. Contrary to popular belief, avalanches are not triggered by loud noise; the pressure of the sound is too small a command to trigger an avalanche.
Landslide initiation can begin at a point with only a small amount of snow moving initially; this is typical of wet or dry avalanche avalanches that are not consolidated. However, if the snow has been sintered into a rigid slab on it a weak layer then the fractures can propagate very quickly, so that large volumes of snow, which may be thousands of cubic meters, can begin to move almost simultaneously.
A snowpack will fail when the load exceeds the power. The burden is immediate; it is the weight of snow. However, the strength of the snowpack is much more difficult to determine and very heterogeneous. It varies in detail with snowflake properties, size, density, morphology, temperature, moisture content; and the bonding properties between the grains. These properties may all metamorphose in time according to local moisture, water vapor flux, temperature and heat flux. The top of the snowpack is also influenced extensively by incoming radiation and local airflow. One of the goals of avalanche research is to develop and validate computer models that can illustrate the evolution of seasonal snowpack over time. A complex factor is the complex field and weather interactions, which lead to significant spatial and temporal diversity of depth, crystal form, and seasonal snowpack coatings.
avalanche Slab
Avalanches of plates are formed frequently in snow that has been stored, or diverted by the wind. They have a distinctive appearance of block (slab) snow that is cut from the vicinity by a fracture. Landslide elements include: crown fracture at the top of the starting zone, wing side fracture on the side of the starting zone, and a fracture at the bottom called staunchwall. The crown and wing fracture is a vertical wall in the snow that depicts the snow mired in an avalanche remaining on the slopes. The sheets may vary in thickness from a few centimeters to three meters. Avalanche slab accounts for about 90% of casualties related to avalanche in backcountry users.
Powder avalanche
The largest avalanches form a turbulent suspension current known as an avalanche of powdered or mixed avalanches. It consists of a powder cloud, which covers a thick avalanche. They can be formed from any kind of snow or initiation mechanism, but usually occur with fresh dry powder. They can exceed speeds of 300 kilometers per hour (190 mph), and mass 10,000,000 tons; their currents can travel long distances along the flat valley floor and even uphill for short distances.
Snow wet avalanche
Unlike snow avalanches, wet wet snow is a suspension of snow and water at low speed, with limited flow to the track surface (McClung, 1999 first edition, page 108). The low travel speed is caused by friction between the sliding surface of the track and the saturated flow of water. Despite the low travel speed (~ 10-40 km/h), wet wet snow is capable of producing powerful destructive forces, due to the large mass and density. The body of the wet snowfall can plow through the soft snow, and can explore rocks, earth, trees, and other vegetation; leaving the field open and often scoring on the avalanche path. Snow avalanche may start from the release of snow discharge, or the release of the slab, and occurs only in water-saturated and isothermal snow packs to be balanced to the melting point of water. The isothermal characteristics of the wet snow avalanches have led to the secondary term isothermal slide found in the literature (eg in Daffern, 1999, page 93). At wet latitudes snow wet avalanches are often associated with climate-avalanche cycles at the end of winter, when there is significant daytime warming.
Avalanche path
As the avalanche moves down the slope it follows a particular path that depends on the slope of the slope and the volume of snow/ice involved in mass movement. The origin of an avalanche is called the starting point and usually occurs at a 30-45 degree slope. The body of the track is called the Track of an avalanche and usually occurs on a slope of 20-30 degrees. When the avalanche loses its momentum and eventually stops reaching the Runout Zone. This usually happens when the slope has reached a steepness of less than 20 degrees. This degree is not consistently true because of the fact that each unique avalanche depends on the stability of the snowpack coming from as well as the environmental or human influences that trigger the mass movement.
Ice avalanche
An ice avalanche occurs when a large chunk of ice, such as from serac or calving glacier, falls to ice (like Khumbu Icefall), triggering the movement of broken pieces of ice. The resulting movement is more analogous to a rock or landslide than an avalanche. They are usually very difficult to predict and almost impossible to reduce.
Maps Avalanche
Plain, snowpack, weather
Doug Fesler and Jill Fredston developed a conceptual model of the three main elements of landslides: terrain, weather, and snowpack. The plains describe the places where landslides occur, the weather describes the meteorological conditions that make the snowpack, and the snowpack describes the structural characteristics of the snow that permits the formation of an avalanche.
Terrain
Landslide formation requires a fairly shallow slope for snow to accumulate but steep enough for snow to accelerate after being managed by a combination of mechanical failure (from snowpack) and gravity. The snow-capped slope angle, called the resting angle, depends on various factors such as crystal form and moisture content. Some of the drier and cooler forms of snow will only stick to the shallower slopes, while the wet and warm snow can stick to a very steep surface. Particularly, in coastal mountains, such as the Cordillera del Paine area in Patagonia, piles of snow are collected on vertical and even overhanging rock surfaces. The angle of inclination that allows snow to move to accelerate depends on factors such as snow shear strength (which depends on the shape of the crystal) and the configuration of layers and inter-layer interface.
Snowballs on the slopes with sun exposure are strongly influenced by sunlight. The cycle of disbursement and refreezing diurnal can stabilize snowpack by promoting settlement. A strong frozen clot cycle results in the formation of surface crust at night and unstable surface snow during the day. The slopes on the ridge or other windblocks accumulate more snow and are more likely to include deep pockets of snow, wind sheets, and cornices, all of which, when disturbed, can lead to the formation of avalanche. In contrast, the snowpack on the slope toward the wind is often more shallow than on the lee slope.
Avalanche and avalanche share common elements: the initial zone where the avalanche originates, the path along which the avalanche flows, and the escape zone where the avalanche comes to rest. The debris deposition is the accumulation of avalanche mass as soon as it arrives in the runout zone. For the picture on the left, many small avalanches form in this avalanche path each year, but most of these landslides do not run the full vertical or horizontal length of the road. The frequency of the formation of an avalanche in a particular area is known as the return period.
The initial zone of the avalanche should be steep enough to allow snow to accelerate once it begins to move, the additional convex slopes are less stable than the concave slopes, due to the difference between the tensile strength of the snow layer and their compressive strength. The composition and structure of the ground surface under the snowpack affects the stability of the snowpack, either as a source of strength or weakness. Avalanches are unlikely to form in very dense forests, but widespread chunks and vegetation can create weak areas deep within snowpacks through the formation of strong temperature gradients. Full landslides (landslides that sweep the slopes almost clean of snow cover) are more common on the slopes with soft soil, such as grass or stone slabs.
In general, avalanches follow the drainage down the slope, often sharing the drainage feature with the summer basin. At and below the tree line, the avalanche path through the drainage is well defined by vegetation boundaries called trim lines, which occur where the landslide has removed trees and prevent the regrowth from large vegetation. Engineered drains, such as the avalanche dam on Mount Stephen in the Kicking Horse Pass, have been built to protect people and property by directing the flow of avalanche. Deposits of deep debris from the avalanches will collect in catches at the end of run-off, such as trenches and river beds.
Slopes that are flatter than 25 degrees or steeper than 60 degrees usually have a lower avalanche incident. Man-induced landslides have the greatest incidence when the snow break angle is between 35 and 45 degrees; The critical angle, the angle at which the avalanche is triggered by humans most often, is 38 degrees. When a human-triggered landslide incident is normalized by the level of recreational use, however, the danger increases uniformly with the angle of inclination, and no significant difference in the hazard to the direction of given exposure can be found. The rule of thumb is: A fairly flat slope to withstand snow but steep enough to ski has the potential to produce an avalanche, regardless of its angle.
Structure and characteristics of Snowpack
The snowpack consists of a parallel soil layer that accumulates during the winter. Each layer contains ice grains representing different meteorological conditions in which snow is formed and deposited. Once deposited, the snow layer continues to grow under the influence of meteorological conditions prevailing after deposition.
For an avalanche that occurs, it is necessary that the snowpack has a weak layer (or instability) under a cohesive snow plot. In practice, the formal mechanical and structural factors associated with snowpack instability are not directly observable outside the laboratory, so snowflake properties that are more easily observable (eg, penetration resistance, grain size, grain type, temperature) are used as an index measurement of mechanical properties of snow (eg tensile strength, friction coefficient, shear strength, and ductile strength). This results in two major sources of uncertainty in determining snowpack stability based on snow structures: First, the two factors affecting snow stability and the specific characteristics of snowpack vary widely in small areas and timescales, resulting in significant difficulties extrapolating observations of snow layer points at various scales space and time. Second, the relationship between easily observed snowpack characteristics and critical snowpack mechanical properties has not been fully developed.
While the deterministic relationship between snowpack characteristics and snowpack stability is still a problem of ongoing scientific research, there is an empirical understanding that evolves from the composition of snow and settling characteristics that affect the likelihood of an avalanche. Observations and experiences have shown that falling snow takes time to tie in with the underlying snow, especially if new snow falls during extremely cold and dry conditions. If ambient air temperatures are cold enough, shallow snow above or around large boulders, plants, and other discontinuities on the slopes, weakened from the rapid crystal growth that occurs in the presence of critical temperature gradients. The big sticky snow crystals are weak indicators of snow, because such crystals have fewer bonds per unit of volume than tightly packed small crystals. Consolidated snow is less likely to peel than a layer of loose powder or wet isothermal snow; However, consolidated snow is a necessary condition for plate sliding, and persistent instability in the snowpack can hide beneath a well-consolidated surface layer. The uncertainty associated with the empirical understanding of the factors affecting the stability of the snow caused most professional avalanche workers to recommend the conservative use of landslide fields relative to current snowpack instability.
Weather
Avalanches can only occur in a standing snowpack. Usually winter in high latitudes, high altitudes, or both have fairly restless weather and cold enough for the snow to precipitate to accumulate into seasonal snowpack. Continentality, through potentiating effects on meteorological extremes experienced by snowpacks, is an important factor in the evolution of instability, and the occurrence of avalanche falls. In contrast, proximity to coastal environments moderates the meteorological extremes experienced by snowpacks, and results in faster stabilization of the snowpack after a storm cycle. The evolution of snowpacks is very sensitive to small variations within the narrow range of meteorological conditions that allow snow accumulation into the snowpack. Among the critical factors that control the evolution of snowpack are: heating with the sun, radiational cooling, vertical temperature gradients in snow, snow amounts, and snow types. Generally, cool winter weather will encourage settlement and stabilization of snowpacks; otherwise, very cold, windy, or hot weather will weaken the snowpack.
At temperatures near the freezing point of water, or during periods of moderate solar radiation, a gentle cold-coagulation cycle will occur. The melting and refreezing of water in the snow strengthens the snowpack during the freezing phase and weakens it during the liquefaction phase. Rapid temperature rise, to a point significantly above the freezing point of water, may cause an avalanche at any time of year.
Continuous cold temperatures can prevent new snow from stabilizing or shaking the existing snowpack. The temperature of the cold air on the snow surface produces a temperature gradient in the snow, because the ground temperature at the base of the snowpack is usually about Ã, Â ° C, and the ambient air temperature can be much cooler. When the temperature gradient is greater than 10 Ã, Â ° C change per vertical meter of snow is maintained for more than a day, a crystal angle called the depth hoar or aspect begins to form in the snowpack due to rapid moisture transport along the temperature gradient. These corner crystals, which bind badly to each other and the snow around it, often become a persistent weakness in snowpack. When the plates are located above the persistent weakness of a force greater than the strength of the persistent weak plate and layer, the persistent weak layer can fail and produce an avalanche.
Any stronger wind than a breeze can contribute to the rapid accumulation of snow on the windward sheltered slope. The wind slab is formed quickly and, if present, the weaker snow under the slab may not have time to adjust to the new load. Even on a clear day, the wind can quickly load the slopes with snow by blowing snow from one place to another. The upper loading occurs when the wind accumes snow from the top of the slope; crosslinking occurs when the snowflake is parallel to the slope. When the wind blows over the top of the mountain, winds down, or against the wind, the mountain side is top-loading, from top to bottom of the lee slope. When the wind blows across a ridge that leads to the mountain, the underside of the wind from the ridge is subject to crosslinking. Cross-loaded wind-slabs are usually difficult to identify visually.
Blizzards and thunderstorms are important contributors to avalanche. Heavy snowfall will cause instability in existing snowpacks, both because of the weight gain and because the new snow has insufficient time to tie the layer of snow underneath. Rain has a similar effect. In the short run, rain causes instability because, like heavy snowfall, it weighs an additional burden on top of the snowpack; and, once the rainwater seeps through the snow, it acts as a lubricant, reducing the natural friction between the snow layers that hold the snowpack together. Most landslides occur during or immediately after a storm.
Daylight exposure to the sun will quickly shake the top layer of the snowpack if the sunlight is strong enough to melt the snow, thus reducing its hardness. During sunny nights, the snowpack can re-freeze when ambient air temperature falls below freezing, through long wave radiation processes, or both. Radiant heat loss occurs when the night air is significantly cooler than the snowpack, and the heat stored in the snow is emitted back into the atmosphere.
Dynamics
When the shape of an avalanche of plates, the plates break down into smaller fragments as the snow falls. If the fragment becomes small enough, the outer layer of the avalanche, called the salt layer, takes on the characteristic fluid. When sufficient particles are present they can become airborne and, given the sufficient amount of snow in the air, part of this avalanche can become separated from most of the avalanche and travel longer distances as snow powder avalanche. Scientific studies using radar, after the avalanche of GaltÃÆ'¼r 1999, confirms the hypothesis that a layer of salt is formed between the surface and the air component of an avalanche, which can also separate from most avalanches.
Driving avalanches is a component of the avalanche weight that parallels the slopes; because an on-going avalanche in its path will tend to blend in, thereby increasing the overall weight. This force will increase as the slope of the slope increases, and decreases as the slope degenerates. Rejecting these are a number of components that allegedly interact with each other: the friction between the avalanche and the underlying surface; friction between air and snow in the liquid; dynamic-fluid drag on the cutting edge of an avalanche; the shear resistance between the avalanche and the air it passes, and the shear resistance between the fragments in the avalanche itself. The avalanche will continue to accelerate until its resistance exceeds the forward force.
Modeling
Seeks to model the behavior of avalanche since the early 20th century, especially the work of Professor Lagotala in preparation for the 1924 Winter Olympics in Chamonix. His method was developed by A. Voellmy and popularized after his publication in 1955 Ueber died Zerstoerungskraft von Lawinen (On the Power of Landslide Damage).
Voellmy menggunakan rumus empiris sederhana, mengobati longsoran salju sebagai balok geser dari salju yang bergerak dengan gaya hambat yang sebanding dengan kuadrat kecepatan alirannya:
He and others then lowered another formula that takes into account other factors, with the Voellmy-Salm-Gubler and Perla-Cheng-McClung models being the most widely used as a simple tool for modeling the flowing snow avalanche (as opposed to powdered snow).
Since the 1990s, many more sophisticated models have been developed. In Europe much of the work was recently done as part of a European-supported SATSIE (Avalanche Studies and Model Validation in Europe) research project that produced the leading MN2L model, now used with Restauration Services des Terrains en Montagne
Human involvement
Prevention
Preventive measures are used in areas where avalanches pose a significant threat to people, such as ski resorts, mountain towns, roads and railways. There are several ways to prevent landslides and reduce their strength and destruction; Active prevention measures reduce the possibility and size of landslides by disrupting the snowpack structure, while passive steps strengthen and stabilize in situ snowpacks. The simplest active size is to repeatedly travel over the snowpack as snow builds up; this can be by way of boot-packing, ski-cutting, or grooming machines. Explosives are widely used to prevent an avalanche, by triggering a small avalanche that breaks instability in the snowpack, and removes the cover layer that can cause large avalanches. The explosive allegations were conveyed with a number of methods including hand-throwing charges, helicopter-dropped bombs, Gazex concussions, and ballistic projectiles launched by air and artillery cannon. Passive prevention systems such as snow fencing and lightweight walls can be used to direct snow placement. Snow accumulates around the fence, especially the side facing the prevailing wind. Wind direction from the fence, the accumulation of snow is reduced. This is due to the loss of snow on the fence that should have been precipitated and the snow picks that are already there by the wind, which has run out of snow on the fence. When there is enough tree density, they can greatly reduce the power of avalanches. They hold snow in place and when there is an avalanche, the snow effect on the trees slows it down. Trees can be planted or they can be preserved, such as building a ski resort, to reduce the power of avalanches.
In turn, socio-environmental changes can affect the occurrence of destructive landslides: several studies linking changes in land use/land cover patterns and the evolution of avalanche damage in mid-high latitudes show the importance of the role played by vegetation cover, which is the root cause of increased damage when protective forests are deforested (due to demographic growth, intensive grazing and industrial or legal causes), and to the roots of declining damage due to the transformation of traditional land management systems based on over-exploitation into systems based on land marginalization and reforestation, something that has occurred mainly since the middle of the century -20 in the mountainous environment of developed countries
Mitigation
In many areas, common avalanche pathways can be identified and precautions can be taken to minimize damage, such as the prevention of development in these areas. To reduce the impact of landslides construction of artificial barriers can be very effective in reducing avalanche. There are several types: One type of barrier (snow net) uses a net strung between poles anchored by a man's cable next to its foundation. These barriers are similar to those used for landslides. Another type of barrier is a rigid structure such as a fence (snow fence) and can be constructed of steel, wood or pre-press concrete. They usually have a gap between the beams and are built perpendicular to the slope, by reinforcing the beam on the downhill side. Rigid barriers are often considered unsightly, especially when multiple lines have to be built. They are also expensive and prone to damage from falling rocks in the warmer months. In addition to an industrial-produced barrier, a landscape barrier, called a landslide dam stops or deflects an avalanche with their weight and strength. These barriers are made of concrete, stone or soil. They are usually placed directly above the structures, roads or railroad tracks they are trying to protect, although they can also be used to channel the avalanches to other obstacles. Sometimes, a mound of soil is placed in the avalanche path to slow it down. Finally, along the transportation corridor, a large refuge, called a snow barn, can be built directly on an avalanche avalanche path to protect traffic from avalanches.
Early warning system
The warning system can detect slowly progressing snowfalls, such as ice slide caused by glacier ice. Interferometric radar, high resolution camera, or motion sensor can monitor unstable areas in the long run, which last from day to year. Experts interpret the recorded data and are able to recognize the impending split to initiate appropriate action. Such systems (eg Weissmies glacier monitoring in Switzerland) can recognize events a few days earlier.
Alarm system
Modern radar technology enables wide area monitoring and landslide localization in any weather, day and night conditions. Complex alarm systems are able to detect landslides in a short period of time to close (eg roads and rails) or evacuation (eg construction sites) of endangered areas. Examples of such systems are installed on Zermatt's only access road in Switzerland. Two radars monitor the slope of the mountain above the road. The system automatically closes the road by enabling some barriers and traffic lights in seconds so no one is harmed.
Survival, rescue and recovery
Landslide accidents are broadly divided into 2 categories: accidents in recreational settings, and accidents in residential, industrial, and transportation arrangements. This difference is motivated by the observed differences in the causes of avalanche accidents in two settings. In most recreational settings accidents are caused by people involved in an avalanche. In a 1996 study, Jamieson et al. (pages 7-20) found that 83% of all landslides in recreational settings were caused by those involved in the accident. In contrast, all accidents in residential, industrial, and transport settings are due to spontaneous natural avalanches. Due to differences in the causes of avalanche accidents, and activities undertaken in two settings, avalanche and disaster management professionals have developed two related preparedness, relief and recovery strategies for each setting.
Big avalanche
Two avalanches occurred in March 1910 in the Cascade and Selkirk mountains; On March 1, the Wellington avalanche killed 96 people in Washington State, USA. Three days later 62 train workers were killed in the Rogers Pass avalanche in British Columbia, Canada.
During World War I, an estimated 40,000 to 80,000 soldiers were killed in an avalanche during a mountain campaign in the Alps on the Austrian-Italian front, much of it caused by artillery fire. About 10,000 men, from both sides, lost their lives in an avalanche in December 1916.
In the northern winter of 1950-1951 about 649 landslides were recorded in a three-month period across the Alps in Austria, France, Switzerland, Italy and Germany. This series of avalanches killed about 265 people and called Winter of Terror.
A mountain climbing camp at Lenin Peak, where it is now Kyrgyzstan, was destroyed in 1990 when an earthquake triggered an enormous landslide that raided the camp. Forty-three climbers were killed.
In 1993, an avalanche of Bayburt ÃÆ'Ã… "zengili killed 60 people in ÃÆ'Ã…" zengili in Bayburt province, Turkey.
A large avalanche in Montroc, France, in 1999, 300,000 cubic meters of snow slid on a 30 Â ° slope, reaching speeds in the region of 100 km/h (62 mph). It killed 12 people in their chalet under 100,000 tons of snow, 5 meters (16 feet) deep. The mayor of Chamonix was convicted of second-degree murder for not evacuating the area, but received a probation sentence.
GaltÃÆ'¼r, a small Austrian village, was hit by an avalanche of GaltÃÆ' inr in 1999. The village is thought to be in a safe zone but the avalanche is very large and flows into the village. Thirty-one people died.
On December 1, 2000, Glory Bowl Avalanche was formed at Mt. Glory is located within the Teton Mountains in Wyoming, United States. Joel Roof is a recreational snowboarding in the interior, bowl-shaped and triggering an avalanche. He was brought nearly 2,000 feet to the foot of the mountain and unsuccessfully saved.
Classification
table of European avalanche risks
In Europe, the risk of avalanche is widely assessed on the following scale, adopted in April 1993 to replace the previous non-standard national scheme. The last description was updated in May 2003 to improve uniformity.
In France, most avalanche deaths occur at risk level 3 and 4. In Switzerland most prevalent at levels 2 and 3. It is estimated that this may be due to differences in national interpretation when assessing risk.
[1] Stability:
- Generally described in more detail in an avalanche bulletin (related altitude, aspect, terrain type etc.)
[2] add-on load:
- weight: two or more skiers or boarders with no distance between them, a pedestrian or a climber, a maintenance machine, an avalanche
- light: a single skier or snowboarder smoothly connecting the turn and without falling, a group of skiers or snowboarders with a gap of at least 10m between each person, one person on snow boots
Gradient:
- a gentle slope: with a slope below about 30 Â °
- a steep slope: with a slope of more than 30 Â °
- a very steep slope: with a slope of more than 35Ã, Â °
- a very steep slope: extreme in terms of inclination (more than 40 Â °), terrain profile, proximity of the ridge, subtlety of the underlying ground
European avalanche size tables
Snowboard size:
North American Landslide Dangers Scale
In the United States and Canada, the following landslide hazard scales are used. Descriptor varies depending on country.
Canadian Classification for the size of avalanche
The Canadian classification for landslide size is based on the consequences of an avalanche. Half size is usually used.
The United States classification for the size of avalanche
Test Rutschblock
Hazard analysis of slabs can be done by using Rutschblock Test. A 2 m wide block of snow was isolated from the other side of the slope and loaded progressively. The result is a slope stability rating on a seven-step scale. (Rutsch means slide in German).
See also
Related streams
- Debris stream
- Gravitational current
- Lahar
- Avalanche
- Mud Smud
- Pyroclastic flow
- Rockslide
- Mud flow
The landslide disaster
- GaltÃÆ'¼r Landslide
- Montroc
- Siachen Glacier
References
Bibliography
- McClung, David. Landslide as a Non-critical Balance System, Punctuated : Chapter 24 in Nonlinear Dynamics in Geosciences, A.A. Tsonsis and J.B. Elsner (Eds.), Springer, 2007
- Mark Mount Guides: Landslide! : children's book on avalanche covering definition & amp; explanation of the phenomenon
- Daffern, Tony:
, Rocky Mountain Books, 1999, ISBNÃ, 0-921102-72-0 - Billman, John: Mike Elggren about Surviving the Avalanche . Skiing magazine February 2007: 26.
- McClung, David and Shaerer, Peter: The Avalanche Handbook , The Mountaineers: 2006. 978-0-89886-809-8
- Tremper, Bruce: Stay alive in the Medan Avalanche , The Mountaineers: 2001. ISBNÃ, 0-89886-834-3
- Munter, Werner: Drei mal drei (3x3) Lawinen. Risikomanagement im Wintersport , Bergverlag Rother, 2002. ISBNÃ, 3-7633-2060-1 (in German) (partial English translation included in PowderGuide: Managing Avalanche Risk ISBN: 0-9724827-3-3)
- Michael Falser: Historische Lawinenschutzlandschaften: eine Aufgabe fÃÆ'¼r die Kulturlandschafts- und Denkmalpflege In: kunsttexte 3/2010, release: http://edoc.hu-berlin.de/kunsttexte/2010-3/falser-michael-1/PDF/falser.pdf
Note
External links
- Avalanche Education Project
- Escape avalanche - A guide for children and teenagers
- Avalanche Defense Photographs
- Canadian landslide
- Canary Avalanche Association
- Colorado Avalanche Information Center
- Center for Snow and Landslide Studies
- EAWS - European Avalanche Warning Service
- Directory of European avalanche services
- Swiss Federal Institute for Snow and Landslide Research
- sportscotland Avalanche Information Service
- Ã, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Avalanche". EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Britannica (issue 11). Cambridge University Press. But note the myths mentioned above
- Utah Avalanche Center
- New Zealand Avalanche Center
- Gulmarg Avalanche Center
- US Avalanche.org
- Sierra Avalanche Center (Tahoe National Forest)
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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