Social science is the main category of academic discipline, relating to society and the relationships among individuals in society. Social science as a whole has many branches, each of which is regarded as a social science. The social sciences include, but are not limited to: anthropology, archeology, economics, history, human geography, jurisprudence, linguistics, political science, psychology, public health, and sociology. The term is also sometimes used to refer specifically to the field of sociology, the original "societal science", founded in the 19th century. For a more detailed list of sub-disciplines in social science, see: Outline of social science.
Positivist social scientists use methods similar to natural science as a tool for understanding society, and defining science in its more strict modern sense. In contrast, social interpretive scientists may use social criticism or symbolic interpretation rather than construct theories that can be falsely falsified, and thus treat science in a broader sense. In modern academic practice, researchers are often eclectic, using several methodologies (eg, by combining quantitative and qualitative research). The term "social research" also gains a degree of autonomy as practitioners from different disciplines sharing in goals and methods.
Video Social science
Histori
The history of the social sciences began in the Age of Enlightenment after 1650, which saw a revolution in natural philosophy, changing the basic framework in which individuals understand what is "scientific". The social sciences emerged from the moral philosophy of the time and were influenced by the Age of the Revolution, such as the Industrial Revolution and the French Revolution. The social science developed from science (experimental and applied), or a systematic knowledge base or prescriptive practice, is concerned with the social improvement of a group of interacting entities.
The beginning of the social sciences of the eighteenth century was reflected in the great encyclopedia Diderot, with articles from Jean-Jacques Rousseau and other pioneers. The growth of social science is also reflected in other specialized encyclopedias. The modern period of seeing " social science " was first used as a different conceptual field. Social science is influenced by positivism, focusing on knowledge based on a true positive sense experience and avoiding negative ones; metaphysical speculation is avoided. Auguste Comte uses the term "social science " to describe the field, taken from Charles Fourier's ideas; Comte also refers to the field as social physics .
After this period, there are five developmental paths emerging in the social sciences, influenced by Comte in other fields. One of the routes taken is the emergence of social research. A large statistical survey was conducted in various parts of the United States and Europe. Another route undertaken was initiated by Durkheim's miles, studying the "social facts", and Vilfredo Pareto, opening up the idea of ​​methodology and individual theory. A third way is developed, arising from a methodological dichotomy, in which social phenomena are identified and understood; this is championed by such figures as Max Weber. The fourth route taken, based on economics, developed and advanced economic knowledge as a hard science. The last path is the correlation of knowledge and social values; The sociology of antipositivism and verstehen Max Weber firmly demands this distinction. In this route, theories (descriptions) and recipes are non-overlapping formal discussions of a subject.
Around the beginning of the 20th century, the philosophy of the Enlightenment was challenged in various places. After the use of classical theories since the end of the scientific revolution, various fields replaced the study of mathematics for experimental studies and tested the equations for constructing theoretical structures. The development of the social science subfield becomes very quantitative in the methodology. The interdisciplinary and cross-disciplinary nature of scientific inquiry into human behavior, the social and environmental factors that influence it, make many natural sciences interested in some aspects of social science methodology. Examples of blurring of boundaries include emerging disciplines such as social medical research, sociobiology, neuropsychology, bioeconomics and history and the sociology of science. Increasingly, quantitative research and qualitative methods are being integrated into the study of human action and its implications and consequences. In the first half of the 20th century, statistics became a free-standing, applied mathematical discipline. Statistical methods are used with confidence.
In contemporary periods, Karl Popper and Talcott Parsons influenced the development of social science. Researchers continue to seek an integrated consensus on what methodologies might have the power and subtlety to relate the proposed "big theory" to the various midrange theories that, with great success, continue to provide a workable framework for large and growing data banks; for more, see consilience. The social sciences will for the foreseeable future consist of various zones in the study, and sometimes differ in approaches to, the fields.
The term "social science" may refer to certain sciences made by thinkers such as Comte, Durkheim, Marx, and Weber, or more commonly for all disciplines outside of "lofty science" and art.. At the end of the 19th century, academic social science consists of five areas: jurisprudence and amendments to law, education, health, economics and commerce, and the arts.
Around the beginning of the 21st century, the expansion of the economic field in social science has been described as economic imperialism.
Maps Social science
Branch
Social science discipline is a branch of knowledge that is taught and researched at the college or university level. The social science discipline is defined and recognized by academic journals in which research is published, and socially educated social societies and academic departments or faculties owned by their practitioners. The social studies field usually has several sub-disciplines or branches, and the line of distinction between the two is often arbitrary and ambiguous.
Anthropology
Anthropology is a holistic "human science", a science of the totality of human existence. This discipline deals with the integration of various aspects of social science, humanities, and human biology. In the 20th century, academic disciplines were often institutionalized divided into three broad areas. The natural sciences seek to obtain common law through reproducible and verified experiments. The humanities generally study local traditions, through history, literature, music, and art, with an emphasis on individual understanding, events, or a particular era. The social science generally seeks to develop scientific methods to understand social phenomena in a generalized way, though usually by different methods of the natural sciences.
The anthropological social sciences often develop nuanced descriptions of general laws derived in physics or chemistry, or they can explain individual cases through more general principles, as in many areas of psychology. Anthropology (like some areas of history) does not fit easily into one of these categories, and different branches of anthropology attract one or more of these domains. In the United States, anthropology is divided into four sub-fields: archeology, physical or biological anthropology, anthropological linguistics, and cultural anthropology. This is a field offered in most undergraduate institutions. The word anthropos (????????) in Ancient Greek means "man" or "person". Eric Wolf describes sociocultural anthropology as "the most scientific of the humanities, and the most humanistic of the sciences."
The purpose of anthropology is to provide a thorough explanation of man and human nature. This means that, although anthropologists generally specialize in only one sub-field, they always remember the biological, linguistic, historical, and cultural aspects of any problem. Because anthropology emerges as a science in complex and industrialized Western societies, a major trend in anthropology has been the methodological impetus for studying societies in societies with simpler social organization, sometimes called "primitive" in anthropological literature, but without any connotation. "inferior". Today, anthropologists use terms such as "less complex societies" or refer to certain subsistence or production modes, such as "shepherding" or "explorers" or "horticulture" to refer to humans living in non-industrial, non-industrial cultures - West, such people or peoples ( ethnos ) are left out of great interest in anthropology.
The search for holism makes most anthropologists study people in detail, using biogenetic, archaeological, and linguistic data together with direct observation of contemporary habits. In the 1990s and 2000s, calls for clarification of what constitutes culture, about how an observer knows where his own culture ends and others begin, and other important topics in writing anthropology are heard. It is possible to see all human culture as part of a large and growing global culture. This dynamic relationship, between what can be observed in the field, as opposed to what can be observed by collecting many local observations remains fundamental in a variety of anthropologies, whether cultural, biological, linguistic or archeological.
Communication science
Communication studies are concerned with the process of human communication, generally defined as sharing symbols to create meaning. This discipline covers a wide range of topics, from face-to-face conversations to mass media like television broadcasts. Communication studies also examine how messages are interpreted through the political, cultural, economic, and social dimensions of their context. Communication is institutionalized under many different names at different universities, including "communication", "communication studies", "speech communication", "rhetorical study", "communication science", "media studies", "communication art", "communication mass "," media ecology ", and" science of communication and the media ".
Communication studies integrate aspects of social sciences and humanities. As a social science, discipline often overlaps with sociology, psychology, anthropology, biology, political science, economics, and public policy, among others. From the humanities perspective, communication deals with rhetoric and persuasion (traditional graduate programs in communication studies trace their history to Ancient Greek rhetoric). This field applies to outside disciplines as well, including engineering, architecture, mathematics, and information science.
Economy
Economics is a social science that seeks to analyze and describe the production, distribution, and consumption of wealth. The word "economy" comes from the Ancient Greek ????? oikos , "family, household, plantation", and ????? nomos , "custom, law", and hence "household management" or "state management". An economist is a person who uses economic concepts and data in a job, or someone who has earned a degree in this field. The classic economic classic definition, set by Lionel Robbins in 1932, is "the science of studying human behavior as a relationship between rare means of having alternative use". Without scarcity and alternative use, there is no economic problem. Briefer is yet "the study of how people seek to meet needs and desires" and "the study of the financial aspects of human behavior".
The economy has two broad branches: microeconomics, where unit analysis is an individual agent, such as a household or firm, and a macroeconomic, in which unit analysis is the economy as a whole. Another division of the subject distinguishes the positive economy, which seeks to predict and explain economic phenomena, from normative economies, which command choice and action by several criteria; Such regularity necessarily involves the assessment of subjective values. Since the beginning of the 20th century, economies have largely focused on quantifiable quantities, using both theoretical models and empirical analysis. Quantitative models, however, can be traced as far as physiocratic schools. Economic reasons have been increasingly applied in recent decades to other social situations such as politics, law, psychology, history, religion, marriage and family life, and other social interactions. This paradigm crucially assumes (1) that resources are scarce because they are not sufficient to satisfy all desires, and (2) that "economic value" is a willingness to pay as disclosed for example by market transactions (long hand). Heterodox groups of thought, such as institutional economics, green economy, Marxist economics, and economic sociology, make other fundamental assumptions. For example, the Marxist economy assumes that the economy is primarily concerned with exchange rate inquiry, in which human resources are the source.
The economic domain that developed in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism.
Education
Education includes special skills teaching and learning, as well as something less tangible but more profound: cultivate knowledge, positive judgment and well-developed wisdom. Education has one of its fundamental aspects that instill culture from generation to generation (see socialization). To educate means 'to draw out', from Latin educare , or to facilitate the realization of individual potentials and talents. It is a pedagogy application, a body of theoretical and applied research related to teaching and learning and attracts many disciplines such as psychology, philosophy, computer science, linguistics, neuroscience, sociology and anthropology.
Individual human education begins at birth and continues throughout life. (Some believe that education begins even before birth, as evidenced by some parents playing music or reading for a baby in the womb in the hope it will affect a child's development.) For some, the struggles and triumphs of daily life provide more instruction than formal schooling (thus Mark Twain's advice to "never let the school interfere with your education"). Family members may have a profound educational impact - often deeper than they realize - even though family teaching can function very informally.
Geography
Geography as a discipline can be broadly divided into two main areas: human geography and physical geography. The former focuses primarily on the built environment and how space is created, viewed and managed by humans and human influence on the space they occupy. This may involve cultural geography, transportation, health, military operations, and cities. The latter examines the natural environment and how climate, vegetation and life, soil, oceans, water and landforms are produced and interacted. Physical geography tests the phenomena associated with measuring the earth. As a result of two subfields using different approaches, a third field has emerged, which is the environmental geography. Environmental geography combines physical and human geography and sees the interaction between the environment and humans. Other geographical branches include social geography, regional geography, and geomatics.
Geographers try to understand the Earth in terms of physical and spatial relationships. The first geographers focused on the science of mapmaking and found ways to precisely project the Earth's surface. In this sense, geography bridges several gaps between natural science and social science. Historical geography is often taught in a college in the Integrated Department of Geography.
Modern geography is an all-embracing discipline, closely related to GISc, which seeks to understand humanity and its natural environment. The areas of urban planning, regional science, and planetology are closely related to geography. Geography practitioners use many technologies and methods to collect data such as GIS, remote sensing, aerial photography, statistics, and global positioning system (GPS).
History
History is a systematic and continuous narrative, as well as research on past human events that are interpreted by paradigm or historiographical theory.
History has a good base in the social sciences and humanities. In the United States, the National Endowment for Humanity includes a history in the definition of humanities (as is the case for applied linguistics). However, the National Research Council classifies history as a social science. The historical method consists of the techniques and guidelines used by historians to use primary sources and other evidence to examine and then write history. The Association of Social Sciences, formed in 1976, brings together scholars from various disciplines who are interested in social history.
Legal
Social science law, jurisprudence, in common language, means that rules (unlike ethical rules) are capable of enforcement through institutions. However, many laws are based on norms accepted by the community and thus have an ethical foundation. Legal studies cross the line between social science and humanity, depending on one's view of research into its goals and effects. Laws are not always workable, especially in the context of international relations. It has been defined as a "rule system", as an "interpretative concept" to achieve justice, as an "authority" to mediate the interests of people, and even as "command of the ruler, supported by the threat of sanctions". But one likes to think of the law, it is a truly central social institution. The legal policy combines the practical manifestations of the thinking of almost every social science and humanities. Law is politics, because politicians create it. Law is a philosophy, because moral and ethical beliefs shape their ideas. The law tells many historical stories, because laws, law, and codification evolve over time. And the law is economics, because every rule about contracts, tort, property law, labor law, corporate law and more can have long-term effects on the distribution of wealth. The noun legal is from Old English Old song , which means something that is fixed or corrected and the adjective legal is derived from the Latin lex .
Linguistics
Linguistics investigates the cognitive and social aspects of human language. This field is divided into areas that focus on aspects of linguistic signals, such as syntax (study of rules governing sentence structure), semantics (meaning studies), morphology (the study of word structure), phonetics (speech sound study) and phonology (the study of systems abstract sounds of a given language); However, working in areas such as evolutionary linguistics (the study of the origins and evolution of languages) and psycholinguistics (the study of psychological factors in human language) traverses these divisions.
The majority of modern research in linguistics takes a largely synchronic perspective (focusing on language at some point in time), and largely - in part because of Noam Chomsky's influence - aims to formulate cognitive theories of language processing. However, language does not exist in a vacuum, or only in the brain, and approaches such as linguistic contact, creole studies, discourse analysis, social interactional linguistics, and sociolinguistics explore language in its social context. Sociolinguistics often uses traditional quantitative analysis and statistics in investigating the frequency of features, while some disciplines, such as linguistic contact, focus on qualitative analysis. While certain linguistic fields can be understood as slipping clearly in the social sciences, other fields, such as acoustic phonetics and neurolinguistics, attract the natural sciences. Linguistics only attracts secondary to the humanities, which play a somewhat greater role in linguistic investigations in the late 19th and early 20th century. Ferdinand Saussure is considered the father of modern linguistics.
Political science
Political science is an academic and research discipline that deals with political theory and practice and the description and analysis of political systems and political behavior. The fields and subfields of political science include political economy, political theory and philosophy, citizenship and comparative politics, direct democratic theory, apolitical government, direct participatory democracy, national systems, cross-country political analysis, political development, international relations, foreign policy, international law , politics, public administration, administrative behavior, public law, judicial behavior, and public policy. Political science also studies power in international relations and the theory of great power and superpowers.
Political science is methodologically diverse, although recent years have witnessed an increase in the use of scientific methods, namely, the proliferation of formal-deductive model formation and the testing of quantitative hypotheses. Approaches to discipline include rational choice, classical political philosophy, interpretivism, structuralism, and behaviorism, realism, pluralism, and institutionalism. Political science, as one of the social sciences, uses methods and techniques related to the type of search sought: key sources such as historical documents, interviews, and official records, as well as secondary sources such as scientific articles used in constructing and test the theory. Empirical methods include survey research, statistical or econometric analysis, case studies, experiments, and modeling. Herbert Baxter Adams is credited with coining the phrase "political science" while teaching history at Johns Hopkins University.
Psychology
Psychology is an academic and applied field that involves the study of behavior and mental processes. Psychology also refers to the application of such knowledge to various areas of human activity, including issues of individual life and mental illness treatment. The word psychology comes from the Ancient Greek ???? soul, mind and logy.
Psychology differs from anthropology, economics, political science, and sociology in seeking to capture generalizations of explanations about the mental functioning and open behavior of individuals, while other disciplines focus on the creation of descriptive generalizations about the function of specific social groups or human behavior situations. In practice, however, there is considerable cross-fertilization occurring among the various fields. Psychology differs from biology and neuroscience in this case mainly relates to the interaction of mental and behavioral processes, and the whole process of the system, and not just the biological or neural processes themselves, although the neuropsychological sub-field combines the study of the actual neural process by studying the mental effects which they have produced subjectively. Many people associate psychology with clinical psychology, which focuses on the assessment and treatment of problems in life and psychopathology. In fact, psychology has many specializations including social psychology, developmental psychology, cognitive psychology, educational psychology, industrial-organizational psychology, mathematical psychology, neuropsychology, and quantitative analysis of behavior.
Psychology is a very broad science that is rarely addressed in its entirety, a big block. Although some subfields include the foundations of natural science and social science applications, others can be clearly distinguished because they have little to do with the social sciences or have much to do with the social sciences. For example, biological psychology is considered a natural science with social scientific applications (such as clinical medicine), social psychology and occupation is, in general, purely social science, whereas neuropsychology is a natural science which has no application of the full scientific tradition.. In British universities, the emphasis on what a student's psychological principles have learned and/or concentrated is communicated through a given degree: B.Psy. shows a balance between natural and social sciences, B.Sc. shows a strong (or overall) scientific concentration, whereas B.A. underscores the majority of social science credits. This does not necessarily mean that, and in many British institutional students who study B.Psy, B.Sc, and B.A. follow the same curriculum as outlined by The British Psychological Society and have the same specialization options open to them regardless of whether they choose a balance, a heavy science base, or a heavy social science base to their degree. If they sign up to read B.A. for example, but specialized in science-based modules, they will still generally be awarded with B.A.
Sociology
Sociology is a systematic study of society, the relationship of individuals to their society, the consequences of difference, and other aspects of human social action. The meaning of the word comes from the suffix "-logy", which means "study of", derived from Ancient Greece, and the stem "soci-", derived from the Latin socius , meaning "escort"; society in general.
Auguste Comte (1798-1857) coined the term, Sociology, as a way of applying the principles and techniques of natural science to the social world in 1838. Comte sought to unite history, psychology and economics through a descriptive understanding of the social world. He proposes that social ills can be improved through sociological positivism, the epistemological approach described in the Course in Positive Philosophy (1830-1842) and Positivism's General View (1844). Although Comte is generally regarded as the "father of sociology", the discipline was formally established by other French thinkers, Durkheim (1858-1917), who developed positivism as a foundation for practical social research. Durkheim founded the first department of European sociology at the University of Bordeaux in 1895, publishing its Sociological Method Rules . In 1896, he founded the journal L'AnnÃÆ'Â © e Sociologique . Durkheim's seminal parody, Suicide (1897), a suicide rate case study among Catholics and Protestants, sociological analysis distinguished from psychology or philosophy.
Karl Marx rejects the positivism of the Comte but still aims to build a society science based on historical materialism, becoming recognized as a posthumous figure of sociology posthumously as a term that derives broader meaning. Around the beginning of the 20th century, the first wave of German sociologists, including Max Weber and Georg Simmel, developed sociological antipositivism. This field can be widely recognized as a mixture of three modes of social thought in particular: Durkheimian positivism and structural functionalism; Marxist historical materialism and conflict theory; and analysis of Weberian antipositivism and verstehen. American sociology broadly appears on separate trajectories, with little Marxist influence, emphasis on rigorous experimental methodology, and a closer relationship with social pragmatism and psychology. In the 1920s, the Chicago school developed symbolic interactionism. Meanwhile, in the 1930s, the Frankfurt School pioneered the idea of ​​a critical theory, an interdisciplinary Marxist form of sociology that depicted diverse thinkers such as Sigmund Freud and Friedrich Nietzsche. Critical theory will take something from its own life after World War II, affecting literary criticism and the establishment of the Birmingham School's cultural studies.
Sociology evolved as an academic response to the challenges of modernity, such as industrialization, urbanization, secularization, and its perception process overshadowed rationalization. This field generally concerns the social rules and processes that bind and separate people not only as individuals but as members of associations, groups, communities and institutions, and includes the examination of organizations and the development of human social life. The areas of sociological interest range from brief contact analysis between anonymous individuals on the road to studying global social processes. In terms of sociologists Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann, social scientists seek an understanding of the Construction of Realities . Most sociologists work in one or more subfields. One useful way to describe discipline is as a group of sub-fields that examine the various dimensions of society. For example, social stratification that studies inequality and class structure; demographic studies of changes in size or population type; criminology examines criminal behavior and irregularities; and political sociology studies the interaction between society and state.
From the very beginning, sociological epistemology, methods, and framework of investigation, have developed significantly and diverged. Sociologists use a variety of research methods, collect quantitative and qualitative data, use empirical techniques, and involve critical theory. Common modern methods include case studies, historical research, interviews, participant observation, social network analysis, survey research, statistical analysis, and modeling, among other approaches. Since the late 1970s, many sociologists have tried to make the discipline useful for purposes outside the academy. Sociological research results help educators, lawmakers, administrators, developers, and others interested in solving social problems and formulating public policy, through sub-disciplinary areas such as evaluation research, methodological assessment, and public sociology.
In the early 1970s, female sociologists began to question the sociological and feminine paradigms of women in sociological studies, analyzes, and courses. In 1969, feminist sociologists challenged the androcentrism discipline at the annual conference of the American Sociological Association. This led to the founding of the Sociologist organization for Women in Society, and, finally, the new sociology journal, Gender & amp; Society. Today, gender sociology is considered one of the most prominent sub-fields in the discipline.
New sociological sub-fields continue to emerge - such as community studies, computational sociology, environmental sociology, network analysis, network-actors theory, gender studies, and an ever-expanding list, many of which are interdisciplinary.
Additional fields of study
Additional applied or interdisciplinary fields related to social science include:
- Archeology is the study of human culture through the recovery, documentation, analysis, and interpretation of material remnants and environmental data, including architecture, artifacts, features, biofact, and landscapes.
- Area studies are research and interdisciplinary scholarships related to specific geographic, national/federal, or cultural areas.
- Behavioral science is a term that encompasses all the disciplines that explore activity and interaction among organisms in nature.
- Computational social science is an umbrella field that includes a computational approach in social science.
- Demography is a statistical study of all human populations.
- Development studies in a multidisciplinary social science department that addresses issues of concern to developing countries.
- Environmental social studies is a broad transdisciplinary study of the interrelationships between humans and the natural environment.
- Environmental studies integrate social science, humanistic, and natural perspectives on the relationship between humans and the natural environment.
- Gender studies integrate several social and natural sciences to study gender identity, masculinity, femininity, transgender problems, and sexuality.
- Information science is an interdisciplinary science that deals primarily with the collection, classification, manipulation, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information.
- International studies cover international relations (studies of foreign affairs and global issues between countries in the international system) and International education (a comprehensive approach that deliberately prepares people to be active and engage participants in an interconnected world).
- Legal management is a social science discipline designed for students interested in studying state and legal elements.
- The science of libraries is an interdisciplinary field that practices, perspectives, and management tools, information technology, education, and other fields to libraries; collection, organization, preservation and dissemination of information resources; and the political economy of information.
- Management consists of different levels of leadership and organizational administration across all business and human organizations. It is an effective implementation to bring people together to achieve the desired goals and objectives through adequate planning, implementation and control of activities.
- Market the identification of human needs and wants, define and measure demand and understand consumer purchasing behavior processes to formulate products and services, pricing, promotion and distribution to meet these needs and desires through long-term exchange and development processes. long term relationship.
- Political economy is the study of production, purchasing and selling, and their relation to law, custom, and government.
- Public administration is one of the main branches of political science, and can be widely described as the development, implementation and study of branches of government policy. Pursuing the public good by increasing civil society and social justice is the ultimate goal of this field. Although public administration is historically referred to as government management, the organization increasingly embraces non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that also operate with the same dedication, major to the progress of mankind.
Methodology
Social research
The origin of the survey can be traced back to at least as a Domesday Book in 1086, while some scholars show the demographic origin to 1663 with the publication of John Graunt Natural and Political Observations of the Bills of Mortality . However, social research began deliberately, with the philosophy of positivist philosophy in the 19th century.
In contemporary usage, "social research" is a relatively autonomous term, encompassing the work of practitioners from different disciplines who share in goals and methods. Social scientists use various methods to analyze the extent of social phenomena; from census survey data from millions of individuals, to an in-depth analysis of the social experience of a single agent; from monitoring what's happening on contemporary streets, to investigating ancient historical documents. The methods originally rooted in classical sociology and statistical mathematics have formed the basis for research in other disciplines, such as political science, media studies, and marketing and market research.
Social research methods can be divided into two major schools:
- Quantitative design approaches social phenomena through quantitative evidence, and often relies on statistical analysis of many cases (or between deliberately designed treatments in an experiment) to make valid and reliable public claims.
- Qualitative design emphasizes the understanding of social phenomena through direct observation, communication with participants, or text analysis, and can emphasize the contextual and subjective accuracy of the announcement.
Social scientists will generally combine quantitative and qualitative approaches as part of a multi-strategy design. Questionnaires, field-based data collection, archive database information and laboratory-based data collection are some of the measurement techniques used. It should be noted the importance of measurement and analysis, which focuses on the objectives (which are difficult to achieve) from objective research or statistical hypothesis testing. Mathematical models use mathematical language to describe a system. The process of developing a mathematical model is called 'mathematical modeling' (also modeling). Eykhoff (1974) defines a mathematical model as 'a representation of important aspects of an existing system (or system to be built) that presents knowledge of the system in a usable form'. Mathematical models can take many forms, including but not limited to dynamic systems, statistical models, differential equations, or game theory models.
These and other types of models can overlap, with the given model involving various abstract structures. Systems are a set of interacting or interdependent, real or abstract entities, forming an integrated whole. The concept of integrated can also be expressed in terms of systems that embody a set of relationships that are distinguished from relations from the set to other elements, and from the relationship between elements of the set and elements not part of the relational regime. A dynamic system modeled as a mathematical formalization has a fixed "rule" that describes the time dependence of the point position in its ambient space. Small changes in system status correspond to small changes in numbers. The evolution rule of dynamic systems is a fixed rule that describes what future countries follow from the current state. The rules are deterministic: for certain time intervals only one future state follows from the current state.
The social sciences are criticized for neglecting the moral elements of human behavior. Economists tend to focus on self-interest. Clinical psychologists - on the effects of early socialization. Anthropologists tend to regard moral relativism. Sociologists often blame the System for immoral behavior. Sociologists will tend to assume limited choice behavior. All this, the critics continue, in contrast to the fact that life is a continual struggle between people's moral commitment and the insistence that drives them to violate this commitment.
Theory
Other social scientists emphasize the subjective nature of the research. These authors share a social theory perspective that includes the following types of things:
- Critical theory is the examination and critique of society and culture, drawn from interdisciplinary knowledge and the humanities discipline.
- Dialectical Materialism is the philosophy of Karl Marx, which he formulates by taking Hegel's dialectics and combining it with Feuerbach's materialism.
- Feminist theory is the expansion of feminism into theoretical or philosophical discourse; it aims to understand the nature of gender inequality. Marxist theories, such as revolutionary theory and class theory, include work in philosophy that is strongly influenced by Karl Marx's materialist approach to theory or written by Marxists.
- Fictitious social science is a theory and methodology for conducting social science that focuses on ethics and political forces, based on contemporary interpretations of Aristotle's phrases.
- Post-colonial theory is a reaction to the cultural heritage of colonialism.
- Postmodernism refers to the point of departure for literary, drama, architecture, cinema, and design, as well as in marketing and business and in historical, legal, cultural and religious interpretations at the end of the 20th century./li>
- Rational choice theory is a framework for understanding and often formally modeling social and economic behavior.
- Social construction considers how social phenomena thrive in a social context.
- Structuralism is an approach to the human sciences that tries to analyze certain fields (eg, mythology) as a complicated system of interconnected parts.
- Structural functionalism is a sociological paradigm that discusses what social functions are performed by various elements of the social system in relation to the whole system.
Other peripheral social scientists investigate the nature of alternative research. These authors share a social theory perspective that includes the following types of things:
- Critical-critical intellectuals describe the sentiments of criticism towards, or evaluation, intellectual and intellectual pursuits.
- Scientific criticism is a critical position against science and the scientific method.
Education and degrees
Most universities offer degrees in social science. Bachelor of Social Science is a degree targeted at the social sciences in particular. Often more flexible and profound than any other degree that includes social science subjects.
In the United States, the university may offer students who study the social sciences Bachelor of Arts degree, especially if the field belongs to one of the traditional liberal arts such as history, or BSc: Bachelor of Science as awarded by the London School of Economics, as a social science is one of the two main branches of science (the other is the natural sciences). In addition, some institutions have degrees for certain social sciences, such as a Bachelor of Economics degree, although the special degree is relatively rare in the United States.
See also
General
Outline of social science Ã, Â · Society Ã, Â · Culture Ã, Â · Structure and agency Ã, Â · Humanities (human sciences)
Method
The historical method Ã,  · Empiricism Ã,  · Theory of representation Ã,  · Scientific method Ã,  · Testing statistical hypothesis  · Regression Ã,  · Correlation Ã,  · Terminology Ã,  · Research Participatory Measures
Area
Political science Ã, Â · Natural science Ã, Â · Behavioral science: Ã, Â · Geography information science
History
History of science Ã, Â · History of technology
List
Field of science Ã, Â · Outline of academic discipline
People
Aristoteles  · Plato  · Konfusius  · Augustine  · NiccolÃÆ'² Machiavelli  · ÃÆ' ‰ mil Durkheim  · Max Weber  · Karl Marx  · Friedrich Engels  · Herbert Spencer < b>  · Sir John Lubbock  · Alfred Schutz  · Adam Smith  · David Ricardo  · Jean-Baptiste Say  · John Maynard Keynes  · Robert Lucas  · Milton Friedman  · Sigmund Freud  · Jean Piaget · Noam Chomsky  · BF Skinner  · John Stuart Mill  · Thomas Hobbes  · Jean-Jacques Rousseau  · Montesquieu  · John Locke  · David Hume  · Auguste Comte  · Steven Pinker  · John Rawls
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