Irrigation is the application of the amount of water controlled for the plant at the required intervals. Irrigation helps grow crops, maintain landscapes, and replant disturbed soils in dry areas and during less than average rainfall periods. Irrigation also has other uses in crop production, including frost protection, suppress weed growth in the grain field and prevent soil consolidation. In contrast, agriculture that relies only on direct rainfall is referred to as rainfed or dryland agriculture.
Irrigation systems are also used to cool livestock, dust, waste disposal, and mine. Irrigation is often studied along with drainage, ie the removal of surface and subsurface water from a given area.
Irrigation has been a key feature of agriculture for over 5,000 years and is a product of many cultures. Historically, it is the basis for economies and societies around the world, from Asia to the Southwest United States.
Video Irrigation
History
Archeological investigations have found evidence of irrigation where natural rainfall is insufficient to support crops for rainfed agriculture.
Irrigation is used as a means of water manipulation in the alluvial plains of Indus valley civilization, its application is estimated to have begun around 4500 BC and drastically increasing the size and prosperity of their agricultural settlements. Sophisticated irrigation and water-saving systems were developed by the Indus Valley Civilization, including artificial reservoirs in Girnar dated 3000 BC, and an initial channel irrigation system of c. 2600 BC. Large-scale agriculture is practiced and extensive channel networks are used for irrigation purposes.
Eternal irrigation is practiced on the Mesopotamian plains where the plants are regularly watered throughout the growing season by coaxing water through a small channel matrix that forms in the field. The Ancient Egyptians practiced Basin irrigation using Nile River floods to flood the land plots that had been surrounded by levees. Floodwater is held until the fertile sediment has settled before the surplus is returned to the waterway. There is evidence of the ancient Egyptian pharaoh Amenemhet III in the twelfth dynasty (around 1800 BC) using the Oasis Faiyum nature lake as a reservoir to store water surplus for use during the dry season. The lake swells annually from the Nile River flood.
The Ancient Nubians developed a form of irrigation using a tool like a waterwheel called sakia . Irrigation began in Nubia sometime between the third and second millennium BC. This is highly dependent on the flood waters that will flow through the Nile and other rivers in what is now Sudan.
In sub-Saharan Africa irrigation reaches the culture and civilization of the territory of the Niger River in the first or second millennium BC and is based on the rainy season of flood and water harvest.
core irrigation is evidenced in pre-Columbian America, early Syria, India, and China. In the Zana Valley in the Andes Mountains in Peru, archaeologists discovered the remains of three radiocarbon irrigation channels dated from the 4th millennium BC, the 3rd millennium BC and the 9th century. These canals are the earliest irrigation records in the New World. Canal trails that may have originated from the 5th millennium BC are found beneath the 4th millennium canal.
Ancient Persia (modern Iran) uses irrigation as far back as the 6th millennium BC to grow barley in areas where natural rainfall is insufficient. The Qanat, developed in ancient Persia in about 800 BC, is one of the oldest irrigation methods still in use today. They are now found in Asia, the Middle East and North Africa. This system consists of vertical well networks and sloping tunnels that are pushed to the side of cliffs and steep hills to tap groundwater. Noria, a water wheel with clay pots around a rim driven by a stream (or by animals where the water source still is), was first used at this time by Roman settlers in North Africa. In 150 BC, the pots were fitted with valves to allow smoother charging when they were forced into the water.
The ancient Sri Lankan irrigation works, the earliest dating of about 300 BC, during the reign of King Pandukabhaya and under sustainable development for the next thousand years, is one of the most complicated irrigation systems in the ancient world. In addition to the underground channels, Sinhala is the first to build a fully artificial reservoir for storing water. Due to their engineering excellence in this sector, they are often called 'irrigation experts'. Much of this irrigation system still exists today, in Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa, due to its sophisticated and precise techniques. This system was extensively restored and extended during the reign of the King Parakrama Bahu (1153-1186 CE).
China
The oldest hydraulic engineer in China was Sunshu Ao (6th century BC) from the Spring and Autumn period and Ximen Bao (5th century BC) from the Warring States period, both working on major irrigation projects. In the Sichuan region belonging to the ancient Qin State of China, the Dujiangyan Irrigation System designed by the Chinese Qin hydrologist and Li Bing irrigation engineer was built in 256 BC to irrigate vast agricultural land currently supplying water. In the 2nd century, during the Han Dynasty, China also used a chain pump that lifted water from a lower altitude to a higher one. This is supported by a manual foot pedal, a hydraulic waterwheel, or a rotating mechanical wheel pulled by a cow. Water is used for public works providing water for urban residence and palace gardens, but mostly for irrigation of agricultural channels and canals in the fields.
Korean
In the 15th century Korea, the world's first rain gauge, uryanggye (Korea: ???), was discovered in 1441. The inventor was Jang Yeong-sil, a Korean engineer from the Joseon Dynasty, in under the king's active direction, Sejong the Great. It is installed in an irrigation tank as part of a national system to measure and collect rainfall for agricultural applications. With this instrument, planners and farmers can use the information gathered in the survey better.
North America
The earliest known agricultural irrigation channel system in the US began between 1,200 BC. and 800 B.C. and was discovered in Marana, Arizona (adjacent to Tucson) in 2009. The irrigation canal system preceded Hohokam culture for two thousand years and belonged to an unidentified culture. In North America, Hohokam is the only culture known to rely on irrigation canals to water their plants, and their irrigation systems support the largest population in the Southwest in 1300 M. Hohokam built simple channels combined with weirs in various agricultural activities. Between the 7th and 14th centuries, they also built and maintained extensive irrigation networks along the lower Salt and Gila rivers that rivaled the complexities used in the ancient Near East, Egypt, and China. It's built using a relatively simple digging tool, without the benefits of advanced engineering technology, and reaches drops of several meters per mile, balancing erosion and silting. Hohokam plant cotton, tobacco, corn, bean and pumpkin varieties, and harvest a variety of wild plants. Late in the Chronological Order of Hohokam, they also use a vast dry farming system, primarily to cultivate agave for food and fiber. Their dependence on agriculture strategies based on channel irrigation, important in less environmentally friendly deserts and dry climates, provides the basis for aggregating rural populations to stable urban centers.
Maps Irrigation
Present extent
In 2000, the total fertile land was 2,788,000 km² (689 million hectares) and equipped with irrigation infrastructure worldwide. About 68% of this area is in Asia, 17% in America, 9% in Europe, 5% in Africa, and 1% in Oceania. The area adjacent to the largest irrigation density was found:
-
- In North India and Pakistan along the Ganges and Indus Rivers
- In Hai He, Huang He and Yangtze in China
- Along the Nile in Egypt and Sudan
- In the Mississippi-Missouri River valley, Southern Great Plains, and in parts of California
Smaller irrigation areas are scattered in almost all parts of the populated world.
Only eight years later, in 2008, the area of ​​irrigated land has increased to a total of 3,245,566 km² (802 million acres), which is almost as large as India.
Irrigation type
There are several methods of irrigation. They vary in how water is supplied to the plant. The goal is to apply water to the plants as equally as possible, so that each plant has the required amount of water, not too much or too little.
Surface irrigation
Surface irrigation is the oldest form of irrigation and has been used for thousands of years. In the irrigation system, the water moves across the soil surface of the soil, within the ground surface, order to wet and infiltrate the soil. Irrigation surfaces can be divided into grooves, battles or irrigation basins . This is often called flood irrigation when irrigation leads to flooding or near flooding of cultivated land. Historically, this has been the most common method of irrigating agricultural land and is still used in most parts of the world.
Where the water level of the irrigation source allows, the level is controlled by the embankment, usually plugged by the ground. This is often seen in terraced fields (rice fields), where this method is used to flood or control water levels in every different field. In some cases, water is pumped, or lifted by human or animal power to the ground level. The efficiency of surface irrigation water applications is usually lower than other irrigation forms.
Surface irrigation is even used for water landscapes in certain areas, for example, in and around Phoenix, Arizona. The irrigation area is surrounded by dikes and water is delivered according to the schedule set by the local irrigation area.
Micro irrigation
micro irrigation , sometimes called localizing irrigation , low volume irrigation , or drip irrigation is a system in which water is distributed under low pressure through pipelines, in a predetermined pattern, and is applied as a small discharge for each plant or adjacent to it. Traditional drip irrigation using individual transmitters, subsurface subsurface irrigation (SDI), micro-spray irrigation or micro-sprinkler, and mini-irrigation bubbler all fall under this category of irrigation methods.
Drip irrigation
Drip irrigation (or micro), also known as drip irrigation, functions according to its name. In this system the water drops dropwise just at the root position. Water is sent to or near the plant's root zone, drop by drop. This method can be the most water-efficient irrigation method, if managed properly, evaporation and runoff are minimized. Water efficiency of the drip irrigation field is typically in the range of 80 to 90 percent when managed properly.
In modern agriculture, drip irrigation is often combined with plastic mulch, further reducing evaporation, and is also a means of fertilizer delivery. This process is known as fertigation .
The deep percolation, where water moves below the root zone, can occur if the infusion system is operated for too long or if the delivery rate is too high. Drip irrigation methods range from very high technology and computerized to low-tech and labor-intensive. Lower water pressure is usually required than most other types of systems, with the exception of low energy center pivot systems and surface irrigation systems, and systems can be designed for uniformity across the field or for proper water delivery to individual plants in landscapes containing a mixture of plant species. Although it is difficult to adjust the pressure on steep slopes, pressure compensation transmitters are available, so the field does not have to be flat. High-tech solutions involve precisely calibrated producers located along a tubing line extending from a computerized set of valves.
Sprinkler Irrigation
In sprinkler or irrigation overhead, water is flowed to one or more central locations within the field and distributed by high pressure sprinklers or overhead rifles. A system that uses sprinklers, sprays, or guns mounted on top of permanently-installed ladders is often referred to as a solid-set irrigation system. A rotating high-pressure sparkler is called a rotor and driven by a ball drive, gear drive, or impact mechanism. The rotor can be designed to rotate in full or partial circles. Weapons are similar to rotor, except that they generally operate at very high pressures from 40 to 130 lbf/inÃ,² (275 to 900 kPa) and currents of 50 to 1200 US gal/min (3 to 76 L/s), usually with diameter nozzle in the range of 0.5 to 1.9 inches (10 to 50 mm). Weapons are used not only for irrigation, but also for industrial applications such as dust suppression and logging.
Sprinklers can also be installed on a mobile platform connected to a water source with a hose. Automated moving wheel systems known as sprinklers can irrigate areas such as small farms, sports fields, parks, grasslands, and unattended cemeteries. Most use long wound polyethylene tubes on steel drums. Because the tubing is drummed with a drum that is driven by irrigation water or a small gas engine, the sprinkler is pulled across the field. When the sprinkler arrives back on the scroll, the system will die. This type of system is known by most people as a traveling "waterreel" irrigation sprinkler and they are used extensively for dust suppression, irrigation, and soil applications from wastewater.
Another traveler uses a flat rubber hose that is dragged behind while the sprinkler platform is pulled by a cable.
Pivot center
The pivot irrigation center is a sprinkler irrigation form that uses several segments of pipe (usually steel or galvanized aluminum) held together and supported by a truss, mounted on a wheel tower with sprinklers positioned along its length. The system moves in a circular pattern and is fed with water from the pivot point at the arc center. This system is found and used in all parts of the world and allows irrigation for all types of terrain. The newer system has dropped the sprinkler head as shown in the following figure.
In 2017, most central pivot systems decrease depending on a U-shaped pipe mounted on the top of the pipe with sprinkler heads positioned several feet (at most) above the plant, thus limiting evaporative losses. Drops can also be used with a hose or bubbler that holds water directly on the soil between the plants. Plants are often planted in a circle to adapt to the central pivot. This type of system is known as LEPA (Low Energy Precision Application). Initially, most pivot centers are water-powered. This is replaced by hydraulic system ( T-L irrigation ) and electric motor system (Reinke, Valley, Zimmatic). Many modern pivot displays GPS devices.
Irrigation with Lateral movement (side roll, wheel line, wheelmove)
A series of pipes, each with wheels with a diameter of about 1.5 m permanently attached to their midpoint, and sprinklers along their length, are combined together. Water is supplied at one end using a large hose. After sufficient irrigation has been applied to a field lane, the hose is removed, water is flown from the system, and the assembly is rolled either by hand or by a specially crafted mechanism, so the sprinkler is moved to a different position. across the field. Hose reconnected. This process is repeated in the pattern until the entire field has been irrigated.
The system is cheaper to install than the central pivot, but is much more labor intensive to operate - it does not run automatically in all areas: it applies water in stationary strips, should be dried, and then rolled onto new strips. Most systems use aluminum pipe 4 or 5 inches (130 mm) in diameter. Pipe doubles as water transport and as a shaft to rotate all wheels. The drive system (often found near the center of the wheel line) rotates a section of pipe clamped together as a single shaft, rolling the entire wheel. Individual wheel position adjustments may be necessary if the system becomes out of sync.
The wheel channel system is limited in the amount of water they can carry, and is limited to the height of irrigible crops. One useful feature of the lateral moving system is that it consists of parts that can be easily broken, adapting to the shape of the plane when the line is moved. They are most commonly used for small, rectilinear, or oddly shaped fields, hilly or mountainous areas, or in areas where labor is inexpensive.
sprinkler system
A grass sprinkler system is installed permanently, compared to a hose-end sprinkler, which is portable. The sprinkler system is installed on the residential grass lawn, in the commercial landscape, for churches and schools, in public parks and cemeteries, and on the golf course. Most of the components of this irrigation system are hidden underground, because aesthetics are important in the landscape. A typical grass sprinkler system will consist of one or more zones, limited in size by the capacity of the water source. Each zone will include a designated landscape section. The landscape will usually be divided by microclimate, plant material type, and type of irrigation equipment. Landscape irrigation systems may also include zones containing drip irrigation, bubbler, or other types of equipment other than sprinklers.
Although manual systems are still in use, most grass sprinkler systems can be operated automatically using irrigation controllers, sometimes called clocks or timers. Most automated systems use electric solenoid valves. Each zone has one or more of these valves that are transferred to the controller. When the controller sends power to the valve, the valve opens, allowing water to flow into the sprinkler in the zone.
There are two main types of sprinklers used in grass irrigation, pop-up bursts and rotor heads. The spray head has a fixed spray pattern, while the rotor has one or more rotating streams. A spray head is used to cover a smaller area, while the rotor is used for a larger area. The golf rotor is sometimes so large that a single sprinkler is combined with a valve and is called a 'valve on the head'. When used in the grass area, the sprinkler is fitted with the top of the flush head to the ground surface. When the system is pressed, the head will poke out of the ground and flush the desired area until the valve closes and closes the zone. Once there is no more pressure on the rib line, the sprinkler head will pull back to the ground. In flower beds or shrubs, sprinklers can be mounted on stairs or even higher pop-up sprinklers can be used and installed flush as in grass areas.
Spray sprinkler
There are many types of end-hose sprinklers. Many of them are smaller versions of larger agricultural sprinklers and landscaping, sized to work with distinctive garden hoses. Some have a spiked base that allows them to temporarily get stuck on the ground, while others have sled bases designed to be dragged when attached to a hose.
Subirrigation
Subirrigation has been used for many years in the field of crops in areas with high water tables. This is an artificial method of raising the water level to allow the soil to be moistened from below the root zone of the plant. Often these systems are located in permanent pastures in lowland or river basins and combined with drainage infrastructure. A pumping station, canal, weir and gate system allows it to increase or decrease the water level in the trench and thus control the water table.
Subirrigation is also used in commercial greenhouse production, usually for potted plants. Water is sent from below, absorbed upward, and excess is collected for recycling. Typically, water and nutrition solutions flood the container or flow through the trough for a short period of time, 10-20 minutes, and then pumped back into the container tank for reuse. Sub-irrigation in greenhouses requires sophisticated and expensive equipment and management. The advantages are water and nutritional conservation, and labor savings through reduced system and automation. This is similar in principle and action to subsurface basin irrigation.
Another type of subirution is its own aqueous container, also known as a sub-irrigation grower. It consists of a planter hanging over a reservoir with some type of wicking material such as a polyester rope. Water is drawn to the axis through the capillaries.
Textile substrate irrigation
Subsurface Textile Irrigation (SSTI) is a technology designed specifically for subirrigation in all soil textures from desert sand to heavy clay. A typical subsurface textile irrigation system has a waterproof base layer (usually polyethylene or polypropylene), a drip line extending along the base, a geotextile layer above the drip line and, finally, a narrow, impermeable layer above the geotextile (see diagram). Unlike standard drip irrigation, the emitting distance in the droppipe is not as important as the geotextile moves water along the fabric up to 2 m from the dripper. Waterproof coatings effectively create artificial water tables.
Water source
Irrigation water may come from ground water (extracted from springs or by wells), from surface water (withdrawn from rivers, lakes or reservoirs) or from non-conventional sources such as treated wastewater, non-salt water, drainage water , or fog collection. A special form of irrigation that uses surface water is an irrigation burst, also called flood water extraction. In case of flooding, the water is diverted to a normally dry river bed (wadis) using dam networks, gates and canals and spread over a large area. The moisture stored on the ground will be used thereafter to grow the crop. Rice fields are mainly located in semi-arid or arid mountains. While the taking of flood water belonging to the accepted irrigation method, rainwater harvest is usually not considered as a form of irrigation. Rainwater harvest is a collection of running water from the roof or unused soil and this concentration.
About 90% of globally produced waste water remains unprocessed, causing widespread water pollution, especially in low-income countries. Increasingly, agriculture uses untreated wastewater as an irrigation water source. Cities provide a lucrative market for fresh produce, as well as appealing to farmers. However, as agriculture has to compete for scarce water resources with industrial and municipal users (see Water scarcity below), there is often no alternative for farmers but uses contaminated urban waste water, including sewage, directly into their crop water. Significant health hazards can result from using water full of pathogens in this way, especially if people eat raw vegetables that have been irrigated with contaminated water. The Institute of International Water Management has worked in India, Pakistan, Vietnam, Ghana, Ethiopia, Mexico and other countries on various projects aimed at assessing and reducing the risk of wastewater irrigation. They advocate a 'multi-limiting' approach to waste water use, where farmers are encouraged to adopt various risk-reducing behaviors. This includes stopping irrigation a few days before harvesting to allow pathogens to die in the sun, applying water carefully so as not to contaminate leaves that may be eaten raw, cleaning vegetables with disinfectants or allowing the sludge used in the farm to dry before being used as human waste. The World Health Organization has developed guidelines for safe water use.
There are many benefits of using recycled water for irrigation, including low cost (when compared to other sources, especially in urban areas), supply consistency (regardless of season, climatic conditions and associated water constraints), and general quality consistency. Recycled waste water irrigation is also considered as a means for fertilizing plants and especially nutritional supplementation. This approach carries the risk of ground and water contamination through excessive waste water applications. Therefore, a detailed understanding of groundwater conditions is essential for effective utilization of wastewater for irrigation.
In countries where moist air is swept at night, water can be obtained by condensation to a cold surface. It is practiced in vineyards in Lanzarote using rocks to condense water. Fog collectors are also made of canvas or foil sheets. Using condensate from air conditioning units as a water source also becomes more popular in large urban areas.
Efficiency
Modern irrigation methods are efficient enough to supply the whole field uniformly with water, so each plant has the required amount of water, not too much or too little. The efficiency of water use in the field can be determined as follows:
- Water Efficiency Field (%) = (Water Discharged with Rice ÃÆ' Â · Water Applied to Field) x 100
Until the 1960s, the common perception was that water is an unlimited resource. At that time, there were less than half the number of people currently on the planet. People are not as rich today, consume fewer calories and eat less meat, so less water is needed to produce their food. They need a third of the volume of water we currently take from the river. Currently, competition for water resources is much more intense. This is because now there are more than seven billion people on this planet, their consumption of meat and vegetable water thirst increases, and there is increasing competition for water from industry, urbanization and biofuel crops. To avoid a global water crisis, farmers should strive to increase productivity to meet increasing food demand, while industries and cities are finding ways to use water more efficiently.
Successful farming depends on farmers who have access to water. However, water scarcity has become an important obstacle to farming in many parts of the world. With regard to agriculture, the World Bank targets food production and water management as an increasingly global issue that fosters the debate. Physical water scarcity is where there is not enough water to meet all demands, including those necessary for the ecosystem to function effectively. Areas prone to frequent physical scarcity of water. This also happens where water seems overwhelming but where resources are too committed. This can happen where there is excessive hydraulic infrastructure development, usually for irrigation. Symptoms of physical water scarcity include environmental degradation and decreased ground water. Economic scarcity, meanwhile, is caused by a lack of investment in water or insufficient human capacity to meet water demand. The symptoms of economic water scarcity include lack of infrastructure, with people often having to take water from rivers for domestic and agricultural purposes. About 2.8 billion people currently live in rare areas of water.
Technical challenge
Irrigation schemes involve solving many engineering and economic problems while minimizing negative environmental impacts.
- Competition for the right to surface water.
- Overdrafting (dilution) of underground aquifers. In the mid-20th century, the advent of diesel and electric motors led to systems that can pump groundwater from the main aquifers faster than the rechargeable drainage. This can lead to permanent loss of aquifer capacity, decreased water quality, soil degradation, and other problems. The future of food production in areas such as the North China Plain, Punjab, and Great Plains in the US is threatened by this phenomenon.
- Ground reduction (eg New Orleans, Louisiana)
- Irrigation or watering only provides enough water for the plant (eg in drip irrigation) provides poor soil salinity control which causes an increase in soil salinity by accumulation of toxic salt on the soil surface in areas with high evaporation. This requires washing to remove these salts and drainage methods to bring salt away. When using a drip line, leaching is best performed periodically at certain intervals (with little excess water), so the salt goes back down to the roots of the plant.
- Waivers due to poor distribution uniformity or management of waste water, chemicals, and may cause water pollution.
- Deep drainage (from excess irrigation) can cause a rise in the surface of the water which in some cases will cause irrigation salinity problems requiring water control that can be accommodated by some form of sub-surface land drainage.
- Irrigation with salt water or high sodium can damage the soil structure due to the formation of alkaline earth
- Filter blockage: Most algae clog filters, drip installations, and nozzles. UV and ultrasonic methods can be used for algal control in irrigation systems.
Impact on people
A 2016 study found that countries whose farms depend on irrigation are more likely to become autocratic than other countries. The authors of the study "argue that the effect has a historical origin: irrigation allows elites to land in dry areas to monopolize fertile water and soil, which makes the elites stronger and more able to oppose democratization."
See also
References
Further reading
- Elvin, Mark. Elevation of the elephant: Chinese environmental history (Yale Press University, 2004)
- Hallows, Peter J., and Donald G. Thompson. Irrigation history in Australia ANCID, 1995.
- Howell, Terry. "Drops of life in irrigation history." Irrigation Journal 3 (2000): 26-33. history of the online sprinkling system
- Hassan, John. Water history in England and modern Wales (Manchester University Press, 1998)
- Vaidyanathan, A. Water resources management: irrigation institution and development in India (Oxford University Press, 1999)
Journal
- Irrigation Science , ISSN 1432-1319 (electronic) 0342-7188 (paper), Springer
- Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Techniques , ISSN 0733-9437, ASCE Publications
- Irrigation and Drainage , ISSNÃ, 1531-0361, John Wiley & amp; Sons, Ltd.
External links
- "Irrigation technique". USGS . Archived from original on December 2, 2005 . Retrieved December 8, 2005 . < span>
- Royal Engineers Museum: The 19th century Irrigation in India
- International Commission for Irrigation and Drainage (ICID)
- Irrigation at the Water Quality Information Center, US Department of Agriculture
- AQUASTAT: FAO's global information system on water and agriculture
This article incorporates text from publications now in the public domain: Ã, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Irrigation". EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Britannica (issue 11). Cambridge University Press.
Source of the article : Wikipedia
0 Comments